I. History and Linguistic Classification

History

Caldwell in the first edition of his book A Comparative grammar of the Dravidian or South Indian family of languages has recognized Kurux as a Dravidian language. But the phonetic features of this language were subjected to comparative linguistic analysis for more than half a century. In 1943, Burrow for the first time set up a regular phonetic correspondence Kurux: PPs (DS III: Two developments of initial *k – has only been preserved before *i / *I in the Nds languages before other vowels it had developed into kh – (in kurux and Brahui) or of in Malto).

Later on, many kurux words concerned with comparative Dravidian linguistics were cited in studies (cf. especially Emeneau the first author to set up P- Dr reconstructions to a greater extent). A framework of definite correspondences however is still missing. In 1961, Burrow and Emeneau included a table of phonetic correspondence for all Dravidian languages in their Introduction to DED. A more elaborate description of these correspondences is contained in Emeneau’s Sketch of Dravidian Comparative Phonology. Here Emeneau points out that the deviating correspondences occurring in numerous etymological groups require more detailed study of the respective conditions under which phonetic changes have taken place in the Dravidian languages (Dravidian Comparative Phonology P. 19). Recently two articles which deal with particular Nos phonetic developments have been published and therefore also with kurux Emeneau’s “North Dravidian Velar stops and Burrow’s - the treatment of primitive dravidian - r - in kurux and malfo”. An exhaustive historical analysis of kurux phonology - however, has not been undertaken (nor has this been done for any other non literary dravidian languages). Without a moro through knowledge of the kurux phonemic system it would not have been possible (cf. I 1.5, 5.1).

Variants:

Only one of several nouns, which are only distinguished by their final vowel, is listed (cf. ciga “Small seedling” cigi. “id”). Many words containing nasals show variants with nasal vowels beside forms with oral vowels : cf. meet “adult man” mẽẽt “id”. As there is a contrast between v and ṽ in other cases in kurux (coar, “necessity: cããr “suring - basket”).

Phonemics of Kurux

Descriptions of the phonemic system according to pinnow. 

Vowels: 

	
	/ i	ə	u
	  e	a	o/ 	

Nasalization / ̃ / occurs with all vowels except a. Long vowels are interpreted as a sequence of two identical short vowels c /ii/ etc) pinnow asserts that аа does not occur (Kurux p. 33). In this dictionary, however, Tiiga lists eight cases of аа.

    ааnka		    ‘which has been said’
	jааv		root
	jhааr		idarshola
	dааmar		‘all damp’	
	dааl		ear of
	tааrkn		past tense of taar - ‘to fall’
	bааkkan		past tense of baak - ‘to throw in’ 
	bааrkan		past tense of baar - ‘to fish out’		

The change of aa to аа in the past tense is also noted by Bhat (kudex indicative, P. 218). Therefore it cannot be doubted that аа does occur. The so called anaptyctic vowels of Kurux Grignard : auxiliary vowels”, have no phonemic value (Pinnow, Kurukh, pp - 40 f) but any serve, as in Mudari, to facilitate the articulation of consonant clusters in certain positions (eg. xeexel ‘earth’).

They disappear in other positions eg. The morpheme beginning with a vowel follows the accusative of xeexe is xeextan. As the only exception to the phonemic transcription used here, there anaptyctic vowels are always written in the present study. Though the position in which they occurs is fixed by certain rules, it seems desirable to mark them directly.

The system which is presented here is based on the one given in DED, but shows some graphic modifications.

*r has been replace by *t (which is also done by Krishnamurti in TVB) from the distribution of phoneme in questions (*-t). *-tt-, *-nt- occur *-t does not occur), it is obvious that originally this phoneme must have functioned as a stop in PDr, however it may have been realized phonetically in later times (cf. also zvelebil, CDp, p. 96). Therefore it seems to be most consistent to use the grapheme *t to symbolize this stop.

Consonants:

     / ?	    k   c  ṭ   t  p	    stop		Voiceless
		g   j  ḍ  d  b			Voiced
		D    (ṇ)  n  m			Nasal
		h   x  	 s			Fricatives
			 l			lateral
		       (ṛ)  r				trills
		     y	 w/			semivowels.  

To these the sequences of stop (except for?) and ṛ plus h must be added, they figure a simple phonemes.

According to Pinnow (kurux, p.p. 48, 53) the phonemic status of ṇ and ṛ is limited. In that part of kurux vocabulary which is to be examined here, ṇ only occurs as an allophone of n before retroflex stops. In other positions, ṇ is confined to a very small number of borrowings, even there it is not realized as a retroflex by all speakers and may be not even by the majority of speakers). Therefore ṇ has always been replaced be n here ṛ, on the other hand, occurs in a great number of dravidian words in kurux. It is often, but apparently not always interchangeable with ḍ. As the relation between ṛ and ḍ is not fully clear, ṛ is retained whenever it occurs in the sources.

*ṛ has been replaced by *ṛ -. As the retroflex articulation is generally indicated by an underline dot, it is more economical to use the same diacritic mark with *ṛ as well.

*ṅ and *ñ before *k and *c respectively have not been indicated, they must be considered allophones of *n, *ṅ does not occur in other positions, and the status of *ñ as a separate phoneme has been made highly doubtful by Krishnamurthi (TVB p. 17).

Distribution of consonant phonemes:

 

Initial: 

	/*k-	*c- 	*t-	*p- 
			*n-	*m- 
		*y-		*v-

Medial:
	
	/* -k-	 * -l-	 * -ṭ-	 * -t- 

	* -kk-	 * -cc-	 * -ṭṭ-	 * -tt-	 * -tt-	 * -pp- 

	* -nk-	 * -nc-	 * -ṇṭ-	 * -nṭ-	 * -nt-	 * -mb-

			 * -ṇ-	 * -n-	 * -m-

			 * -ḷ-	 * -l-

			 * -ṛ-	 * -r-

		 * -y-			 * -v-


Final:

	/* -ṇ	 * -n		* -m/
	 * -l	 * -l
	 * -ṛ	 * -r
	 * -y 

Parb tevhar

 
1.	barto bahin behaot uoy 
	ayo – baba erage baror re – 2 
	ganva bhiya erage baror.


2.	makhanta  bechnan ne duru ero
	pirintan ganva bhiya neror
	pirintan ayo baba neror 


3.	nitam nitam SapRaren sahiya
	Dhuniya karam Dandi 
	Undul becha pollen ho – 2 
	eRpa pali Mano hole eRepan Khapoy 
	rijhan baledan badi sahiya – 2 

	dhuRiya dandi 

1.	rim rim ra biRa lagi
	madgi khatera lagi re
	khatera chia bhiya khatera chia re 
	Pello ge pesage bhir Mana lagi
	Pello ge pesage bhirmana lagi


2.	Bhonga bhonga pello nahiyar kodi 
	Maiy dularo pello avn Ullara rao
	Mala raoy pello addo ninghayn khedon
	Panche rupya dali avn ulla rao. 


3.	ne khadro Koronjo jabbdar
	Koronjo poonp nedega lagi re –2 
	babu tambas koronjo jabbdas
	miyya	tangiyo pesage kali re –2. 


4.	nin pajgi dumbari mokhday
	dumbari nu pochogo rai re-2
	nin paccho tenga hun polti
	dumbari nu pochogo –2


5.	dinda Samay din koy 
	rjjhan baledan badin –2
	Met rana koRe ka Sahiya
	Met maleka koRe
	bhala met maleka koRe 


6.	ender pupan meiherkin pello
	bhagjogni lekha lahsarki bara lagdi
	novr pupan mejherkin pello
	bhagjogni lekha lahsarkin bara lagdi



1.	jaspuriya belas bhiya Navrem
	nawran pesa mala chiddas
	pesa ga chiadas bhiya, bari bakhera hodas
	bhiya bara bari bakhera hodas. 


2.	Sendera kaday bhiya karega kaday
	alar Majhi Majhi bhiya amake mana
	alar Majhi amake mana 
	banda allan hoaoy, lihi lihi baoy
	alar Majhi amare mana. 


3.	kiRa kiRa badi koy pello
	hu kiRa hohore avn ula rao
	Sahiya hu kiRa avn ulla rao
	tuRsin dharoy koy aRkhan tokkhoy
	raji kiRa avn ulla rao
	bhala hu kiRa avn ulla rao. 


	angan asera make nana
	khadd	makho radan bijjo bari bhejja be chon
	bi jjo bari  bhejja  be chon
	khaddn  dura  pakon ka bheja dura  bechon
	khadd  makho radan bijjo bari bheja  bechon
	biRi argo bari khara rijh laggi 
	khadd makho radan bijjo bari bhejja bechon
	ho  bijjo bari bheja bechon 	

KuRukh Sahitya

 
(a)	Lok Sahitya
(b)	Sist Sahitya

Lok sahitya – lok git, lok kahani, paheli, kahawat, muhabara. 

1.  	ritu  git - 
	jhimir – jhimir chep puninya lagi
	samdo enderge chaydi 
	samdhis gahi joRa banna kulla
	samdo enderge chaydi 


2. 	teyohar git 
	khel khoterka dhiban chaRem chi koy – 2
	jokhay khara  dhira banya – 2
	chhote – chhote jokhay gis laga banay 
	pajgi jokhay newiy toRa banay


3. 	Sanskar git 
	biski – biski ayo daso kosa raji
	biskay – biskay baba biso kosa raji
	ender baron ayo nighay chali chhutera
	ender baron baba nighay bali chhutera 
	baroy – baroy beti supli khaddan khendon
	baroy – baroy beyi mauni khaddan khendon


4.  	dharmik git 
	chala baRa  me - 2
	naygayo, chala baRa – 2
	paRki  Mai
	Sewa nana ho naygayo, chala baRa - 2
	paRki  rai 


5.	Sram  git
	khosra dippa ropa edaa keran 
	hare jiya koronum bai
	ambay koray jiya
	ambey koray kaya
	karam guti jiya nanay


6.	Kehl  git
	namhayn meega me Jani aRkha punda do ayango 
	tara tokkhen tara jigor - jongor do ayango - 2 


7.  	Pratiwadi  git 
	okkday  hole okka Falna (raya)
	mala hole choar bhonga re 
	pasindrai hole okka Falna (raya)
	mala  hole choar bhonga re 


8.	Updes  git 
	Onda bara babusin paka
	aoun ulla ko rame rasika nanoy
	piri bari bubusin paka
	aoun ulla ko rame rasikai nanoy

Folk Songs

Khekhel benja

 
1.	Canum canum naigayo 
	belar lekha benjrak’a lag 
	Khe khel benja / khaddi dandi 

	Chanum chanum naigayo 
	belar lekha benjara lagday 

2.	a yang ga chali / chal kera 
	bhaiyare nekan ayang baot? 
	kaddi pairi chail kera 
	bhaiyare nekan ayang baot? 
	Dharme towar nannja 
	Bhiya re nekan ayng baot? 

3.	Becha baldan toka baldan dada 
	Bhejja dharoy ka mala? 
	Khaddi piri becha baldan dada, 
	Bhejja dharoy ka mala? 
	Chiro chilpi pokol kichri 
	Dewta lekher day bhiya re biRi argo biri 
	Khaddi piri pokol Kichri 
	Dewata lekhe raday bhiya re beRi argo biri 

4.	hjiri boRa muli kichri kder koler 
	bhiya khatera lagi 
	kolera chiabhiya khatera chiaho thotha 
	bari bheja bechon 
5.	Suga Kalinga janam mala nukuri 
	haire bhiya re ekase nanot?
	becho beri janam mala nukuri 
	hare maiya ekase nanot. 

6.	tiko manatu dahre malla 
	gucha bhiya pareta maiya 

7. 	ChoRa  chora kadi pello
	chora riRo arega lagi 
	Khaddi piri kadi pello
	ChoRa miRo arega lagi 

Janam git

 	
1. 	Janam Janam onte Janam
	Kukoy janamamke chīa 
	Kukoy janam khara khilpil ayo 
	Kutey  janam make chia. 

2.	Onda  blo dudu ona 
	enderge bolo dobi nanday 
	dudu onoy becha Kaloy
	enderge bolo dodi nanday 

Gam git

 
1.	Khadd mauho mukka khaddan pakkiya 
	Khadd malka mukka gallen kappki rai 
	Piri bari mukka khaddn pakkiya 
	Khadd malka mukka gallen kappki rai 

2. 	Ninggyo ko bolo keccha dara kera 
	Ningage tanikokhabir malla
	Piri bari keccha dara kera 
	Ningage taniko khabir malla 

3.	ayo ga chali kera 
	bhiya re nekan ayo baot? 
	hay, piri chali kera 
	bhiya re nekan ayang baot 
	viwah git.


1.	Onte ekla madan dada hoy
	jira dhaniya lekhe radan dada hoy -2 
	enghay rana guti dada hoy 
	ninghay eRpa jhainjh mandar mani dada hoy -2 
	engun bisoy hole dada hoy 
	ninghay eRpa re suna mano dada hoy -2 

2.	biski biski ayodaso kosa raji 
	biskay baba biso kosa raji 
	ender baroy ayo ninghay chali chhutera 
	ender baron dada nin ghay bali chhutera 
	baroy baroy beti supli khaddan khendon 
	baroy baroy beti maoni khaddn khendon