LANGUAGE CONTACT, CODE MIXING, CODE SWITCHING
In multilingual society, speaker is bound to use the alternative use of languages, i.e. sometime we use one language and sometimes another language. Sometimes we use second language in its entirety or in part and this is called alternative use of languages. Code switching is a phenomenon of a multilingual society and it can be defined as alternative use of different languages (or two codes), either in entirety or in parts, beyond the sentential level. Along with code switching is code mixing. Maī kəl Delhi jārahā hũ, Are you also going to Delhi.
yeh kām itnā āsān nahi haī, as you think.
maī kitāb Xəridne gəyā, but the shop was closed.
If you work hard, āp zərūr kāmyāb hōge.
yeh merī kitāb hai, I bought it in Delhi.
āpko yeh kərna hai, this way or that way.
Code mixing is the phenomenon which occurs when the speaker mixes lexicons from the other language within the same sentence.
voh bəhut tall hai.
kyā time hai.
voh bāt məẽne unko communicate kər di.
usnẽ definitely əpna kām Xətəm kərliya hoga.
yeh penstand bəhut accha haī.
mera ghər səŗək ke leftside pər hai.
yeh dil mā̃ge more.
BORROWING
Urdu is a mixed language as indicated by its old name ‘Rekhta’ – the mixed one. Urdu took its shape in the region of the Punjab and Delhi during the Ghaznawī and the early Sultanate period when the first mingling of the Hindu-Muslim cultures occurred causing a productive intermixture of Persian, Turkish and Arabic languages with Prakrits – the Apabhramsha of the Punjab and the Khari Boli of Delhi and Merrut areas in northern India. Gradually it attained a literary status in the south before it was employed by the writers in the North, and in the course of time it became popular during the post-Aurengzeb period in the beginning of the 18th century. Then the center shifted from Delhi to Lucknow and other places till in 1800 A.D. the Fort William College was established by the British at Calcutta. Here deliberate attempts were made to simplify the language under the name of Hindūstānī, which encouraged a revival of interest in secular, non-communal and local aspects of its literature. In the course of centuries, Urdu borrowed thousands of words and phrases from Arabic, Persian, Turkish and Hindi as it did also from European languages. According to Farhang-e-āsafiyah (the first great Urdu dictionary by Maulvi Sayyid Ahmad of Delhi), there are about 73% words of Indian origin in Urdu, 26% words are of Arabic, Persian and Turkish origin, and approximately 1% words have been borrowed from different European languages. However, the number of borrowed words is increasing with time.
The Muslims came to India as conquerors in the twelfth century and introduced Persian and Turkish as their court languages. The Turkish rulers took some time to get acquainted with this new country and its people. Once their supremacy was established they showed a keen interest in the field of languages and literatures too. They started learning Sanskrit and other Prakrit bhāshas, whereas Hindus concentrated on mastering Persian, the official and court language of the rulers. Because of this extraordinary situation a hybrid form of speech by Hindus and Muslims in the bazaars, with sprinkling of Arabic, Persian and Turkish works, came into existence. The political work, like Khaliq Bari in which one line runs in Persian and one in Hindi, was the outcome of the necessity of the common people. The following examples are probably of that historical process, when Urdu was still in the early stage of formation. For example:
shādi-biyāh - ‘marriage’ ,
dhan-daulat - ‘fortune, wealth’,
dangā-fasād - ‘disturbance’, ‘breach of peace’
bāl-bache - ‘children’ ,
mard-mānas - ‘men’
hansi-mazāq - ‘joke’, ‘wit’
In the above compound words, one word is of Hindi and the other is of Persian or Arabic origin, bearing the same meaning. This process of cultural exchange became more stabilized during the Mughal period. In those times it was indispensable to get acquainted with the new Perso-Mughal culture and to acquire some working knowledge of Persian and Turkish languages. The native Indians had to integrate a lot of foreign names into their own language.
Urdu has borrowed many words from Turkish, for example:
eelchi - ‘an ambassador’, ‘emissary’
atāliq - ‘a private tutor’, ‘an instructor’
bulāq - ‘an ornament worn in the nose’
buqhchah or buqchah - ‘a small budle of cloth’
tūzuk - ‘regulation’, ‘ordinance’, ‘institute’
chāq - ‘active’, ‘alert’
The suffix /ci/ is common in Turkish words which is mostly used to denote the profession of a person:
toopci ‘gunner’, bāwarci ‘cook’
Persian and Arabic words have greatly enriched Urdu language. The following are some of the examples of words which were once borrowed from Persian and Arabic, but their frequent use in Urdu, during the last three centuries have completely eliminated their foreign character. They are as familiar to Urdu speaking people as other words of Indian origin.
1. Flowers and Fruits:
P↝ Persian; A ↝Arabic; T ↝ Turkish
/gulāb/ – ‘rose’(P) /nargis/ - ‘narcissus’ (P)
/lālah/ - ‘tulip’ (P) /seb/ - ‘apple’ (P)
/Xarbuzah/ - ‘musk-melon’(P) /pistāh/ - ‘pistachio’ (P)
bādām/ - ‘almond’ (P)
2. Clothes, Dresses, Bed covers :
/kamxāb/ - ‘Silk or satin worked with gold or silver flowers’(P)
/zarbfat/ - ‘brocade’ (P) /maxmal/ - ‘velvet’ (A)
/atlas/ - ‘satin’ (A) /pajāmah/ - ‘trousers’ (P)
/shalwār/ - ‘trousers’ for female (P)
/qamis/ - ‘shirt’ (A) /takyāh/ - ‘pillow’ (P)
/lihāf/ - ‘quilt’ (A) /cādar/ - ‘sheet’ (P)
3. Food :
/qīmāh - ‘minced meat’ (A)
/qormāh/ - ‘highly spiced curry’ (T)
/pulāo/ - ‘a delicious rice preparation, with meat and selected spices’ (P)
4. Eating Utensils:
/deg/ - ‘a cauldron’, ‘a big pot’ (P)
/degci/ - ‘small cooking pot’ (P)
/kishti/ - ‘a tray’ (P) /tasht/ - ‘a tray’ (P)
/rakābi/ - ‘a small dish’ (P) /tandūr/ - ‘an oven’ (p)
5. Articles for decoration and comfort :
/taxt/ - ‘throne’ (P)
/kursi/ - ‘chair’ (A)
/masnad/ - ‘throne’, large cushion (A)
/gāoo takyāh - ‘large pillow roll’ (P)
/fānūs/ - ‘glass shade of a candle stick’ (P)
6. Writing materials:
/qalām/ - ‘pen’ (A)
/qalamdān/ - ‘pen case’ (P)
/dawāt/ - ‘an inkpot’ (A)
/kāGhaz/ - ‘paper’ (P)
/siyāhi/ - ‘ink’ (P)
7. Ornaments :
/jaushan/ - ‘an ornament worn on the upper arm’ (P)
/gulūband/ - ‘a neck ornament’ (P)
/pāzeb/ - ‘ornament for feet or ankles’ (P)
8. Coins and Calculation :
/ashrafī/ - ‘a cold coin’ (P)
/muhr/ - ‘a seal’, ‘gold coin’ (P)
/mubligh/ - ‘sum’, ‘quantity’ (A)
/bāqi/ - ‘balance’, ‘arrears’ (A)
/tarāzu/ - ‘a balance’ (P)
9. Musical instruments :
/Daf/ - ‘tambourine’ (P)
/tanpurah/ - ‘guitar’ (A)
/rabāb/ - ‘a kind of violin’ (A)
10. Building and Architecture :
/mahal/ - ‘palace’ (A)
/burj/ - ‘tower’, bastion’ (A)
/diwār/ – ‘a wall’ (P)
/gumbad/ – ‘a dome’ (P)
/mihrāb/ – ‘arch’, ‘niche’ (A)
11. Military profession and weapons :
/sipāhī/ - ‘soldier’ (P)
/jamādār/ - ‘an army officer’ (A & P)
12. Marriage :
/jahez/ - ‘bride’s dowry’ (A)
/mahr/ - ‘a gift settled upon the wife’ (A)
/shādi/ - ‘wedding’ (P)
13. Burial and Interment :
/qabr/ - ‘a grave’ (A)
/mazār/ - ‘shrine’ (A)
/chahlum/ - ‘the fortieth day of mourning’ (P)
14. Miscellaneous words :
/dalāl/ - ‘a broker’ (A)
/mazdūr/ - ‘a labourer’ (P)
/vakīl/ - ‘a counselor’, ‘an attorney’ (A)
/sūrat/ - ‘form’, ‘face’ (A)
/mizāj/ - ‘temper’, ‘disposition’, ‘health’ (A)
/barf/ - ‘ice’, ‘snow’ (P)
Urdu has got a number of compound words, and the compound word formation in Urdu is typically in correspondance with the other Indo- Aryan languages. Compound words in Urdu which are in use are of six different categories:
Category-I : The compounds in which Urdu words are mixed with Hindi words.
/bāg-Dor/ - ‘a long rein in which horses are led’
/bel-gāRi/ - ‘bullock cart’
/āp-bīti/ - ‘autobiography’
Category -II: The compounds in which Persian words are mixed with Persian words:
/zabān-darāz/ - ‘abusive’, ‘impudent’
/nēk-baxt/ - ‘lucky’, ‘fortunate’
/pāk-dāman/ - ‘pure’, ‘chaste’, ‘virtuous’
Category -III: The compound words in which Arabic words are mixed with Arabic words:
/āli-shān/ - ‘magnificent’
/sadr-maqām/ - ‘a capital’
/takyā-kalām/ - ‘a needless word or phrase habitually introduced into speech’
Category –IV: The compounds where Urdu words are mixed with Persian words:
/munh-zor/ - ‘head strong’, ‘obstinate’
/sabzi-mandi/ - ‘vegetable market’
/jagat-ustād/ - ‘a renowned teacher’
Category –V: The compounds where Urdu words are mixed with Arabic words:
/imām-baRhah/ - ‘a place where the festival of Muharram is celebrated’
/mootī-masjid/ - ‘pearl mosque’
/kafān-choor/ - ‘a shroud thief’
/bārah-vafāt/ - ‘first 12 days of Rabi ‘ul-Awwal during which
Prophet Muhammad(s) remained ill.
Category –VI: The compounds where Persian words are mixed with Arabic words:
/atish mizaj/ - ‘fiery tempered’
/namak halāl/ - ‘grateful’, ‘loyal’
/nāzuk Xayāl/ - ‘of delicate perception’
There are some complicated words of foreign origin which have been taken into Urdu, but they were subject to modification according to the convenience of the speakers.
As regards the change and modification of Arabic words and Persian words in Urdu, they can be roughly divided into two types.
Type-I:
Words which have changed their outer form to some extent but retained the original meaning
/shorbā/ > /shuwa/ = ‘soup’
/kīsān/ > /khīsā/ = ‘purse’
/qallāsh/ > /qallānch/ = ‘poor’, ‘wretched’
Type-I:
Words which have retained their original form, but their meaning is absolutely altered in Urdu:
/xafīf/ (Arabic) ‘small’, ‘slight’ > (Urdu) ‘to be put to shame’
/takrār/ (Arabic) ‘repetition’ > (Urdu) ‘dispute’
/failsūf/ (Greek) ‘Philosopher’ > (Urdu) ‘cunning person, an imposter’.
In addition to Turkish, Persian and Arabic words, Urdu has borrowed many words from Non-Asian languages too. The year 1498 is not only important in the political history of India because of the Portuguese arrival at Calicut under the command of Vasco de Gama, but is also very important in the commercial, cultural, religious and linguistic fields. By 1540, the Portuguese had firmly established themselves in the chief ports of India and became the leading traders in the East. During the seventeenth and eighteenth century, Portuguese became the ‘lingua france’ of a great part of India and conferred a benefit on Urdu by contributing new words and enriching its vocabulary.
Some of the examples of Portuguese words which have been taken in Urdu are :-
1. Fruits and Vegetables:
Urdu Transliteration English Portuguese
<Insert Picture> /ananās/ ‘pineapple’ /ananās
<Insert Picture> /alfānso/ ‘a kind of mango’ /alfonso /
2. Other Eatables:
<Insert Picture> /pāo/ ‘bread’ /pao/
<Insert Picture> /tambākū/ ‘tobacco’ /tabāko/
3. Pots and Utensils :
<Insert Picture> /bālTi/ ‘bucket’ /balde/
<Insert Picture> /beesin/ ‘basin’ /bacia or bacio/
4. Furniture :
<Insert Picture> /almārī ‘almirah’ ‘armārio, almario/
<Insert Picture> /meez/ ‘table’ /meza/
5. Wearing Apparel :
<Insert Picture> sāyā ‘gown’ /saia/
<Insert Picture> /kāj/ ‘button hole’ /casa/
6. Religious Terms :
<Insert Picture> /pādrī/ ‘priest’ /padre/
<Insert Picture> /girjā/ ‘church’ /igreja/
7. Instruments:
<Insert Picture> /ālpin/ ‘pin’ /alfinete/
<Insert Picture> /chābi/ ‘key’ /chave/
8. Miscellaneous :
<Insert Picture> /angreez/ ‘English man’ /inglēs/
<Insert Picture> /āyā/ ‘nurse’ /aia/
<Insert Picture> /sābun/ ‘soap’ /sabāNo/
After the decline of Portuguese power, the Dutch and the French East India company played an important role for some time in India. By 1751 the French were recognized as a rising power from Hyderabad to Cape Comorin. As a result of close contact between French diplomats and military officers with Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan of Mysore, Nizam of Hyderabad and other princely rulers of India, many French words were inducted in Urdu vocabulary. For example
/trup/ ‘troop’ French troop
DIFFUSION
Language does not exist in a vaccum. It is the means for communication within a group of people, with a certain political and economic system, Genetic relationship may really be due to areal diffusion. If two languages are in contact some of the speakers of each language having the degree of competence in the other language are likely to borrow lexemes, grammatical categories and techniques and some grammatical forms, and gradually become more similar.
If two or more languages are spoken in geographically contiguous area which contains no physical or social impediments to cross cultural communication there will in each language community be a degree of bi multilingualism. A number of linguistic traits will diffuse from language to language until each applies across a considerable region within a geographical area, some times across the whole area. Each language has two possible kinds of similarities with other languages-genetic similarities, which are shared inheritances from a common, proto- language, and areal similarities, which are due to borrowing from geographical neighbours. If the languages from each family were scattered over the area, rather than each being in a solid block then it might be possible to distinguish genetic from areal similarities.
It is important to note that a linguistic area would not accept each diffused feature to have spread into every language. Rather, each feature would have its own distribution over most of the languages with in a certain region with in the area; it is the superimposition of these individual distinctions that establishes the area as a whole.
What can Diffuse:
It is probably true to say that any aspect of human culture can be borrowed from one community to another. Sapir (1921: 205) said “we know that myths, religious ideas, types of social organization, industrial devices, and other features of culture may spread from point to point, gradually making themselves at home in cultures to which they were at one time alien.” To this list we can add songs, ceremonies, political systems, marriage rules, the domestication of animals, and agriculture.
Language, as a cultural trait, is eminently open to diffusion. Diffusion of features may tend to vary a good deal from one linguistic situation to another. Although a great deal of research is needed to know which sorts of features are borrowed and under what circumstances, it is possible to put forward some tentative generalisations.
(a) Phonetics and Phonology:
People naturally tend to accommodate their pronunciation with those with whom they interact and this can extend to the creation of new phonological contrasts.
Prosodic and secondary contrasts such as tone, glottalization, nasalisation will typically diffuse. In most cases a new contrast will arise- to copy something that occurs in a neighbouring language- by internal change, rather than through the borrowing forms.
(b) Lexemes:
The names in a contact language for a new tool or animal or idea may get borrowed from one language to an other. This is called lexical borrowing. Another kind of borrowing stems from the custom in some societies of tabooing the name of a dead person, and also vocabulary items that have a similar form to this name; these are often replaced by a lexeme from a neighbouring language.
The conditions for lexical borrowing greatly vary but, as a general rule, any lexeme may be borrowed (and may over time diffuse over a considerable area).
(c) Grammatical Categories, Construction types and Techniques:
They way in which a grammar is organized (but not the forms themselves) will always tend to be accommodated towards grammars of other languages of which some speakers have an active knowledge. Perhaps the most common feature to diffuse is constituent order (often called just ‘word order’).
A language may readily adapt its functional profile – whether head- marking or dependent- marking (Nichols 1986)- to that of language (s) with which it is in contact. Classifiers or noun class systems also readily diffuse. A system of switch-reference markers, or serial verb constructions, are also typically found in all the languages of a continuous region. The degree of diffusability of other types of categories and techniques (e.g. strategies for incorporation, nominalization, relative clauses) is a topic which demands detailed investigation across all types of borrowing situation.
(d) Grammatical Forms:
There is again a great variation between different parts of the world, but by and large, grammatical forms are borrowed less readily than lexeme or grammatical categories. Sapir was of the opinion that grammatical forms are highly resistant to borrowing and, as a result, similarity of grammatical forms is almost always indicative of genetic relationship. He suggested that “a really serious morphological influence is not, perhaps, impossible, but that its operation is so slow that it has hardly ever had the chance to incorporate itself in the relatively small portion of linguistic history that lies open to inspection.” (Sapir, (1921:203)
