Brief History:
The term ‘script’ in Urdu is translated as rasmulkhat <Insert Picture> and, in view of the sweeping modifications, it is now called ‘Urdu Script’. It is written and read from right to left but the numerals are written from left to right. Urdu script is an extended form of the Arabic script, which developed from the Nabatean script. The source of Nabatean script can be traced to Aramic script, which was prevalent in ancient Syria. Urdu script in India has undergone tremendous changes during the last one thousand years and has, consequently, drifted remarkably from its Arabic source. For instance, the original Arabic alphabet contains twenty- nine letters including hamza, divisible into nineteen basic forms, which could be differentiated from each other in their group by adding dots, combination or dots and some other diacritics above and below the letters. Later on, Persian has added different dot combinations and markaz (lines above the letters) to these various shapes to represent more sounds not found in Arabic. Urdu further added a few more signs and modified the letters to represent retroflexion, aspiration and vowel nasalization. All these have made Urdu script distinct and different from its Arabic source.
When Arabic script came to Iran it underwent certain modifications, which were brought about by Khwaja Abdul Aali, who introduced four consonantal sounds of Persian, namely /p/, /c/, /z/ and /g/. These sounds did not have corresponding orthographic symbols in Arabic as they did not exist in Arabic. Hence the corresponding letters : gaf < ﮒ > and zhe <ﮊ > ce < ﭺ > pe <ﭗ > were evolved by putting some dots (nuqte) and slanting line (markaz) to the existing forms which corresponded with them. Consequently, the total number of letters also increased from 29 to 33. Urdu adopted all the 33 letters and further added four more letters namely Ree (<Insert Picture> ), Dāl (<Insert Picture> ), Tee ( <Insert Picture>), baRī yee (<Insert Picture> ), representing three retroflex sounds /T/, /D/, /R/ and the vowel /e/, respectively.
Although hamza as a glottal stop consonant is included in Arabic script, it is not considered as a grapheme of Urdu. In fact, there are two views regarding the status of hamza in Urdu script. One set of scholar consider hamza as both an alphabet and an orthographical sign, while other set of scholars do not include it in the alphabetic system of Urdu, as it does not represent a phoneme. Hence in many Urdu text books, total number of letters mentioned is either 36 or 37.
Urdu script has three styles of writing, namely Naskh, Nastālīq, and Shakistah. Nastālīq style of writing was invented by an Iranian scholar, Khwaja Mir Ali Tabrizi, who combined naskh with tālīq (hence nastālīq). Urdu adopted nastālīq style of writing and it is or great importance, as all the published materials in Urdu language are produced through this style. Nastālīq is a script of circles and crescents, curves and dots. It is a delight for a learner to write in the nastālīq (a fine round, hand) form with a reed-pen. It is to be pointed out here that nastālīq way of Urdu writing is in use presently and is different from khwshnavīsī (or Calligraphy), which is altogether a different kind of art. Naskh is part of the existing Arabic script and is commonly used in Arabic quotations. Shakistah, on the other hand, is used in personal or official dealings.
Urdu Script
Urdu script is based on Perso-Arabic script. It has a cursive type of writing style, written from right to left. There are thirty six (36) letters, among them four (4) are vowel letters and thirty two (32) are consonants. Each letter in Urdu has been given a distinct name and are grouped on the basis of their similarity in shapes. Compared to English, where initial letter in the beginning of a word or proper noun is written with capital letters, in Urdu writing there is no conception of capital letters, even if the word is a proper noun.
The Letters of the Urdu Alphabet
The letters of Urdu alphabet are given in the following chart in their traditional order. The words (lexicon) in the dictionary are also arranged in the same order.
Letters Name Urdu pronunciation
(ﺍ ) alif ā
(ﺐ) bee b
(ﭗ) pee p
(ﺖ) tee t
( ) Tee T
(ﺙ) see s
(ﺝ) jīm j
(ﭺ) chee c
(ﺡ) hee h
(ﺥ) khe kh (X)
(ﺪ) dāl d
( ) Dāl D
(ﺬ) zāl z
(ﺮ) ree r
( ) Ree R
(ﺯ) zee z
(ﺜ) zhee zh
(ﺲ) sīn s
(ﺵ) shīn sh
(ﺹ) svād s
(ﺽ) zvād z
(ﻄ) toe t
(ﻆ) zoe z
(ﻉ) aīn it represents vowels
(ﻍ) Ghain G
(ﻒ) fee f
(ﻕ) qāf q
(ﮎ) kāf k
(ﮒ) gāf g
(ﻞ) lām l
(ﻡ) mīm m
(ﻦ) nūn n
(ﻭ) vāv au/ū/oo/v
(ﻩ) chhooTī hee h
(ﻯ) chhooTī yee i/y
( ) baRī yee ai/ee
In the above table, five letters of the Urdu alphabet viz; (ﺍ ) (alif), (ﻮ) (vāv), (ﻉ) (ain), (ﻯ)(chhooTi yee) and (<Insert Picture> ) (baRī yee) are used to represent vowel sounds. Each of these letters represents atleast two vowel sounds. It is because of these reasons that Urdu words are quite difficult in terms of pronunciation and invariably Urdu speakers, both native and non-native, commit mistakes in reading the language. For a proper reading of Urdu writings phonetic clarity is needed. For this purpose certain markers and symbols are used.
ﺀ <Insert Picture>(N) ﻫ
hamzā nūn-e-Ghunnā do chashmī hee
vowel sequence marker nazalization marker aspiration marker
peesh zeer zabar
vowel [u] vowel [i] vowel [a]
^
jazm tashdiid
cluster marker gemination marker
These markers represent three vowels, namely [a], [i] and [u]. In addition, there are certain symbols also to represent aspiration marker, nasalization marker, vowel sequence marker, cluster and gemination marker. However, normal writing or in Urdu books, these markers are almost always omitted, although they are very useful at the primary level for children/learners learning Urdu language. These help them to read the Urdu letters/words correctly. At the later stage when they become familiar with the nature of the words then these markers are omitted from the Urdu books. These markers and symbols are not required at all at the later stage. The omission of these markers does not mean that the learners will not commit mistakes in reading at the later stage. It only means that the learners are quite mature in learning and are well versed with the language, so no more support in reading and speaking are required. The learners become quite independent. These markers and symbols also play an important role in reading Qurān. Muslims in the world, who are not the native speakers of Arabic, can not recite the Qurān correctly without the help of these diacritic markers and symbols. In Arabic these are called erāb .
Alif ( ﺍ )
Initial Alif
In Urdu, words beginning with vowels are written with the help of alif without any sound value. This is only to fulfill the need of the script. For example < <Insert Picture> > /oor/ towards. The zabar, zer and pesh are found in Bunyādi Qāeda (Basic Urdu language book) over alif <ﺍ>, as in /a/ < <Insert Picture>>, /I/ < <Insert Picture> > and /u/ < <Insert Picture> > in order to distinguish these vowels in words, otherwise spelled the same way. For example:
/adhar/ <Insert Picture> ‘space’, /idhar/ <Insert Picture> ‘here’, /udhar/ <Insert Picture> ‘these’
It is to be pointed out here that in Urdu alif ( ﺍ ) at the beginning of a word with a superscript mad (~) put over it is never omitted. This mad (~) represents initial /ā/ (long vowel). It can be seen in the following given examples:
/ādmi/ <Insert Picture> ‘man’, /āsān/ <Insert Picture> ‘easy’
/ālūdgi/ <Insert Picture> ‘pollution’, /ākhri/ <Insert Picture> ‘end’
/ālu/ <Insert Picture> ‘potatoe’, /ābādi/ <Insert Picture> ‘population’
/āram/ <Insert Picture> ‘comfort’, /āftāb/ <Insert Picture> ‘sun’
/āb/ <Insert Picture> ‘water’, /āg/ <Insert Picture> ‘fire’
Medial and final alif
In Urdu, medial and final alif are always pronounced with ā (long vowel). For example:
/pāni/ <Insert Picture> ‘water’, /liyā/ <Insert Picture> ‘took’
/chālāk/ <Insert Picture> ‘clever’, /diyā/ <Insert Picture> ‘clay lamp’
/tālāb/ <Insert Picture> ‘pond’, /binā/ <Insert Picture> ‘basis’
/pāk/ <Insert Picture> ‘pure, holy’, /sīyā/ <Insert Picture> ‘sewn’
/pīyā/ <Insert Picture> ‘drank’, /diyā/ <Insert Picture> ‘gave’
/dāstān/ <Insert Picture> ‘story’, /kiyā/ <Insert Picture> ‘did’
/māldar/ <Insert Picture> ‘rich’, /keyā/ <Insert Picture> ‘what’
Medial /ā/
In Urdu, medial ā is indicated with a madd over an alif in a few words borrowed from Arabic. For example:
/maāb/ ‘respected’, /qurān/ ‘Quran, the holybook’
Ain < ﻉ >
Ain (ﻉ) represents a consonant sound but it is not found in day-to-day speech because it is borrowed from Arabic language. Some highly educated people try to pronounce this sound in their deliberations, but it is not as clear in their speeches as it is in Arabic people’s speech. Ain (ﻉ) in Urdu is either not pronounced or is pronounced as a, ā, i, o (vowels) sometimes it is either equated or replaced with alif in the normal speech. For example:
Correct Pronunciation Incorrect pronunciation
/iʔlm/<Insert Picture> /ilm/<Insert Picture> ‘knowledge’
/aʔq/<Insert Picture> /ark/<Insert Picture> ‘Arrack’
/shruʔ/ <Insert Picture> /shrū/ <Insert Picture> ‘beginning’
/māʔlūm/ <Insert Picture> /mālūm/ <Insert Picture> ‘know’
/māʔbūd/<Insert Picture> /mābūd/ <Insert Picture> ‘God’
/bāʔd/<Insert Picture> /bād/ <Insert Picture> ‘later, after’
/uʔlūm/<Insert Picture> /ulūm/<Insert Picture> ‘sciences’
Initial ain ( ﻉ ) and alif ( ﺍ )
When an initial ain ( ﻉ ) is combined with alif ( ﺍ ) it is pronounced as ā (long vowel). For example:
Correct Pronunciation
/āʔlam/ <Insert Picture> ‘world’, /āʔshiq/ <Insert Picture> ‘lover’
/āʔdat/ <Insert Picture> ‘habbit’, /āʔrif/ <Insert Picture> ‘wise’
/āʔesha/ <Insert Picture> ‘a name’ /āʔmir/ <Insert Picture> ‘a name’
Vāv ( ﻮ )
In Urdu, an initial vāv < ﻮ >is always a consonant /v/. It can be seen in the following example:
/vafā/ <Insert Picture> ‘faithfulness’, /vaqf/ <Insert Picture> ‘endowment’
/vaja(h)/ <Insert Picture> ‘reason’, /vabāl/ <Insert Picture> ‘misery, trouble’
/vaqt/ <Insert Picture> ‘time’, /visāl/ <Insert Picture> ‘death’
/vaqār/ <Insert Picture> ‘status’
Initial Alif ( ﺍ ) and vāv ( ﻮ )
Initial alif ( ﺍ ) when followed by vāv <ﻮ > represents /au/, /oo/ or /ū/. In order to represent the sound /au/ zabar is placed over alif in the initial position of a word, and in the medial and final position the zabar is put on the letter preceding (ﻮ ). The sound /ū/ can be indicated with an inverted pesh above the vāv as in < >. In Urdu, there is no distinguishing sign for the sound /oo/. For example:
/oor/ <Insert Picture> ‘direction’, / aur/ <Insert Picture> ‘more’,/ūpar/ <Insert Picture> ‘above’.
Medial and Final vāv (ﻮ )
In Urdu, medial and final vāv (ﻮ ) represent /oo/, /au/ or /ū/. For example:
/doost/ <Insert Picture>‘friend’, /daur/<Insert Picture> ‘period’, /ūrdu/<Insert Picture> ‘Urdu language’
/doopaher/<Insert Picture>‘noon’, /daurān/<Insert Picture>‘during’, /justaju/<Insert Picture>‘search’
/goosht/ <Insert Picture> ‘meat’, /daulat/ <Insert Picture> ‘rich’, /jādū/ <Insert Picture> ‘magic’
/rooz/ <Insert Picture> ‘daily’, /dauR/ <Insert Picture> ‘run’, /bhālu/ <Insert Picture> ‘bear’
ChhooTi yee < ﻯ >
In Urdu, chhooTi yee ( ﻯ ) besides representing the vowels, is also the consonant, y. For example:
/yatīm/ <Insert Picture> ‘orphan’, /yaksān̄/ <Insert Picture> ‘similar’
/ya/ <Insert Picture> ‘or’, /yād/ <Insert Picture> ‘remember’
/yāddāsht/ <Insert Picture>‘memory’, /yāsīn/ <Insert Picture> ‘a name’
/yār/ <Insert Picture> ‘friend’
Initial Alif <ﺍ > and chhooTi yee < ﻯ >
In Urdu writing alif ( ﺍ ) before a chhooTi yee ( ﻯ ) represents /ee/, /ī/, or /ai/. If we feel the necessity, the sound ai can be indicated with a zabar written above the chhooTi yee. The sounds /ai/ and /ī/ have no distinguishing signs in this language. For example:
/eek/ <Insert Picture> ‘one’,/īmān/ <Insert Picture> ‘faith’,/aisā <Insert Picture> ‘such’
Medial ChhooTi yee ( ﻯ )
Medial chhooTi ye ( ﻯ ) represents /ee/, /ī/ or /ai/. For example:
/hameesha/<Insert Picture>‘always’, /tārīx/<Insert Picture>‘history’, /bairaq/<Insert Picture>‘banner’
/safeed/<Insert Picture>‘white’, /pēshāni/<Insert Picture>‘forehead’, /jaisa/<Insert Picture>‘as’
Final chhooTi yee ( ﻯ )
In Urdu, final chhooTi yee ( ﻯ ) is always /ī/. For example:
/makkhī/ <Insert Picture> ‘fly’, /mālī/ <Insert Picture> ‘gardener’
/sālī/ <Insert Picture> ‘sister-in-law’, /kālī/ <Insert Picture> ‘black’
/gālī/ <Insert Picture> ‘abuse’, /xālī/ <Insert Picture> ‘empty’
/nūrī/ <Insert Picture> ‘a name’, /mūlī/ <Insert Picture> ‘raddish’
/nālī/ <Insert Picture> ‘a narrow drain’, /hālī/ <Insert Picture> ‘a name’
BaRi yee ( <Insert Picture>)
In Urdu baRi yee (<Insert Picture> ) is always in the final position to represent /ee/. For example:
/ne/ <Insert Picture> ‘ergative postposition,/ge/<Insert Picture> ‘will’ (auxiliary verb-Future tense)
/se/ <Insert Picture> ‘from’ (Postposition),/le/<Insert Picture> ‘take’
/ke/ <Insert Picture> ‘stands for apostrophe’
chhooTi hee ( ﻩ )
When chhooTi hee < ﻩ > occurs in the word final position and is followed by the sound /ā/ then the word will be pronounced with aspiration. For example:
/āgah/ <Insert Picture> ‘inform’, /dargāh/ <Insert Picture> ‘shrine’
/nīkāh/ <Insert Picture> ‘marriage bond’, /zindāh/ <Insert Picture> ‘alive’
/gāh/ <Insert Picture> ‘place’, /rāh/ <Insert Picture> ‘way’
/bandargāh/ <Insert Picture> ‘sea port’, /ārāmgāh/ <Insert Picture> ‘waiting room’
/murdāh/ <Insert Picture> ‘dead’, /daroGāh/ <Insert Picture> ‘sub-inspector’
In Urdu, there is no way to indicate a final /i/ or /a/. Only chhooTi hee is used, as an unpronounced letter to pronounce these vowels. For example:
/ki/ <Insert Picture> ‘that’, /na/ <Insert Picture> ‘no, not’
The Urdu pronouns /yah/<Insert Picture> , /vah/ <Insert Picture> ‘he, she, this, that’, and /ye/, /ve/ ‘they, these, those’, are pronounced as /yah/ and /vah/, and are written in the same way with a final chhoo Ti hee. For example:
/yah/<Insert Picture> ‘this, he, she’ /vah/ <Insert Picture> ‘he, she, that’
/ye/ <Insert Picture> ‘these, they’ /ve/ <Insert Picture> ‘they, those’
GRAPHIC SIGH IN URDU
Hamzā <ء >
In Arabic language, the letter <۶ > hamzā is used as a consonant glottal stop but in Urdu language, it is used as an orthographical mark and represents a vowel sequence. In fact, it has been in dispute among the Urdu scholars. We do not find any word in this language that begins with it. As is a substitute it is used in the middle of the words for the letter < ا > alif to indicate a new syllable mainly between two vowels when one of them ends as a syllable and the other indicates the next one.
It plays three roles in Urdu script:
(i) It indicates the occurrence of two vowels coming together.
(ii) It represents short vowel [a].
(iii) It functions as a connector to combine two nouns together.
The letter <۶ > hamzā gives the sound of the letter < e > as in the English word ‘poetry’. Its function may be further illustrated by the hyphen (-) which indicates separation of two vowels as in the English word ‘co-ordinate’. Its form is like that of the English letter / s / drawn in a free hand in one sweep of pen < s > and is written between the two vowels (long or short) a little above the body of the word. It should be noted that some scribes write it just like the initial part <۶ > of the letter < ع > ain. In phonetic/phonemic transcriptions, the letter <۶ > hamzā is shown by the diacritic mark /ʔ/, it is just like an apostrophe. When such vowel sound is required between the vowel letters < ا > alif and <ﻮ > vāoo/vāv no space is left for the letter <۶ > hamzā in the body of the word.
For example:
/gāooN̅/ < Insert Picture > ‘village’, /pāooN̅/ < Insert Picture > ‘foot’
/āoo/ < Insert Picture > ‘come’, /jāoo/ < Insert Picture > ‘go’
/lāoo/ < Insert Picture > ‘bring’, /āūN̅/ < Insert Picture > ‘May I come’
/gāoo/ < Insert Picture > ‘sing’, /nāoō/ < Insert Picture > ‘boats’
In some other set of words < ﻋ > is placed on the top of an empty space which is in the form of shōshā < > (incurvation). It can be seen in the following illustrative example:
/dāeera/ < Insert Picture > ‘a circle’, /pāeedār/ < Insert Picture > ‘strong’
/jāeeza/ < Insert Picture > ‘inspection’,/sāeera/ < Insert Picture > ‘a female name’
/fāeeda/ < Insert Picture > ‘advantage’, /nājāeez/ < Insert Picture > ‘illegal’
/sūi/ < Insert Picture > ‘needle’, /kai/ <Insert Picture > ‘many’
/gaī/ < Insert Picture > ‘it/she went’, /jāeez/ < Insert Picture > ‘lawful, legal right’
/taīs/ < Insert Picture > ‘twenty three’, /kījiyee/ < Insert Picture > ‘please do’
In Urdu, there are certain words in which hamzā < ﻋ > is followed by the letter < ﻮ > vāo/vāv but preceded by the letters other than < ﺍ > alif and still no space is provided for it in the body of the word. For example:
/lakhnau/ < Insert Picture > ‘Lucknow’, /raūf/ < Insert Picture > ‘a name’
/sūar/ < Insert Picture > ‘a pig’
In Urdu, the letter <۶ > hamzā is also employed for izāfat. For this purpose zeer (a diacritic mark) is used to indicate the union or the state of construction of two substantives or an adjective with /a/ substantive, so that the two come to form one set. Thus it shows the genitive case or the addition of an adjective. In all such cases it is placed under the last letter of the governing noun and is known as Izāfat (addition). In the words it is pronounced just like a short vowel /i/. The diacritic mark when used as the mark of izāfat has been transliterated as - i -, written between two words. For example:
/āb-i-hayāt/ < Insert Picture > ‘water of life’,
/zeer-i-daraxt/ < Insert Picture > ‘under a tree’
/cheerāG-i-shab/ < Insert Picture > ‘night lamp’
/shām-i-misr/ < Insert Picture > ‘an evening of Egypt’
/bād-i-sabā/ < Insert Picture > ‘morning air’
/shām-i-Gam/ < Insert Picture > ‘sorrowful or sad evening’
If the governing nouns end on the imperceptible < ه > hee or on the semivowel letter <ى > chooTi yee then hamzā <۶ > is indicated by the letter /ee/ like the zeer of izāfat with the addition of the apostrophe placed over the last letter of the governing word. (Zakir, 1970) It can be illustrated by the following examples:
/qatr –ee- āb/ < Insert Picture > ‘a drop of water’
/vali-ee-kāmil/ < Insert Picture > ‘a perfect saint’
/nāra-ee-takbīr/ < Insert Picture > ‘great slogan’
/sāya-ee-dīvār/ < Insert Picture > ‘shade of wall’
/zamāna-ee-qadīm/ < Insert Picture > ‘ancient time’
/jazbā-ee-ishq/ < Insert Picture > ‘passion of love’
/xima-ee-x(v)āb/ < Insert Picture > ‘the camp of dream’
It is to be noted here that since chooTi hee < ه > in such cases is imperceptible; it has been omitted in the transcription of these set of words. The letter chooTi yee < ى> is employed as a long vowel represented by /ī/ in the transcription. It should also be noted that hamzā < ۶ >, thus, placed over the semi-vowel letter chooTi yee < ى >, has no space provided for it in the body of the word, whereas a space for it is provided with <ى> in the aorists whose roots end with < ا > alif and vāv/vāoo <ﻮ >. For example:
/kooʔi/ < Insert Picture > ‘any’, /āʔi/ < Insert Picture > ‘it/she came’
/sooʔi/ < Insert Picture > ‘she slept’,/khooʔi/ < Insert Picture > ‘lost’
/rūʔi/ < Insert Picture > ‘cotton’, /bhāʔi/ < Insert Picture > ‘brother’
/dhūlāʔi/ < Insert Picture > ‘washing’,/nāʔi/ < Insert Picture > ‘hair cutter’
The letter hamzā < ۶ > surmounted on the vowel letter <Insert Picture > baRī yee is employed in forming genitive, adjectival and prepositional compounds, when the governing word ends on the letter < ﺍ > alif or < ﻮ > vāoo/vāv. In the transcription of such compounds the letter < ۶ > hamzā is indicated by the diacritic mark (ﺍ ) on the last letter of the governing word, followed by the letter /e/ adopted for < Insert Picture > baRī yee. For example:
/āvāz-ee-buland/ < Insert Picture > ‘loud sound’
/sadā-ee-buland/ < Insert Picture > ‘loud noise’
/bālā-ee-bām/ < Insert Picture > ‘on the roof’
/rū-ee-zamīN/ < Insert Picture > ‘surface of the ground’
/bābā-ee-Urdu/ < Insert Picture > ‘father of Urdu’
/davā-ee-marz/ < Insert Picture > ‘medicine of disease’
There are words in Urdu language which have been borrowed from Arabic language in their plural forms ending with the letter < ۶ > hamzā and preceded by the letter < ﺍ > alif. In such cases it is not written over the body of the word or over any other letter. In transcription it is indicated by apostrophe on the letter < a > representing < ﺍ > alif. It can be illustrated by the following examples:
/umrā/ < Insert Picture > ‘the rich’,
/hukmā/ < Insert Picture > ‘wiseman, philosopher, physician’
Urdu Tashdeed < Insert Picture >
In Urdu, tashdeed (a diacritic mark) when written above a consonant indicates that consonant is doubled. For example:
/sachchā/ < Insert Picture > ‘honest, true’,/bachchā/ < Insert Picture > ‘child’
/allāh/ < Insert Picture > ‘God’ ,/sattār/ < Insert Picture > ‘a name’
/kuttā/ < Insert Picture > ‘dog’,/achchā/ < Insert Picture > ‘good
/chillā/ < Insert Picture > ‘’forty days’,/aDDā/ < Insert Picture > ‘stand’
/jallād/ < Insert Picture > ‘one who hangs’,/durree/ < Insert Picture > ‘whips’
/makkhī/ < Insert Picture > ‘fly’,/darree/ < Insert Picture > ‘passes’
Urdu jazm < Insert Picture >
In Urdu, jazm < Insert Picture > is written over a consonant, which indicates that there is no vowel between that consonant and the following consonant. For examples:
/umr/ < Insert Picture > ‘age’ /dard/ < Insert Picture > ‘pain’
/vaqt/ < Insert Picture > ‘time’ /zard/ < Insert Picture > ‘yellow’
/durd/ < Insert Picture > ‘sediment’ /vird/ < Insert Picture > ‘repeat’
Urdu Tanvīn < Insert Picture >
In Urdu, tanvīn < Insert Picture > is written before an < ﺍ > alif which occurs in the final position of the word. This feature is found only in some words borrowed from Arabic language. The pronunciation of tanvīn < Insert Picture > with <ﺍ > alif is /-an/. It is an adverb marker. Let us consider the following examples:
/eehteeyātan/ < Insert Picture > ‘precaution’ /zarūratan/ < Insert Picture > ‘by recently’
/eetteefāqan/ < Insert Picture > ‘by chance’, ‘accidentally’/qānūnan/ < Insert Picture > ‘legally’
/fauran/ < Insert Picture > ‘at once’ /majbūran/ <Insert Picture > ‘forcibly’
/qasdan/ < Insert Picture > ‘deliberately’, ‘intentionally’/fardan/ < Insert Picture > ‘individually’
/ishāratan/ < Insert Picture > ‘by hint’ /irādatan/ < Insert Picture > ‘intentionally’
References:
1. Beg, Mirza Khalil Ahmad (1985) Urdu ki Lisāni Tashkeel. Aligarh: Idara-e-Zabān-o-Uslub.
2. Dalvi, Abdus Sattar (ed.) (1971) Urdu me Lisāniyāti Tahqīq. Bombay: Oriental Book Sellers and Publishers.
3. Hasan, N. and O.N. Koul (1980) Urdu Phonetic Reader. Mysore: Central Institute of Indian Languages.
4. Jain, Gyan Chand (1973) Lisāni Mutāle. Delhi: National Book Trust.
5. Khan, M.H. (1948) Urdu sautiyat ka khākā, in Dalvi (ed.)
6. Khan, Masood Hussain (n.d.) A Phonetic and Phonological Study of Word in Urdu. Aligarh: Department of Urdu, A.M.U.
7. Narang, G.C. (1964) Urdu ki Taleem ke Lisāniyati Pahloo. Second edition. Delhi.
8. Zakir, Mohammad (1970) Lessons in Urdu Script. New Delhi: Jayyed Press.
9. Zor, Syed Mohi-ud-din Qadri (1960) Hindustani Lisāniyāt. Lucknow: Nasim Book Depot.
PHONEMIC-GRAPHEMIC FIT
In Urdu, we write words with different phonemes but pronounce them with one sound, e.g. the words /ām / < Insert Picture > ‘common’ and / ām/ < Insert Picture > ‘mango’. Here, the pronunciation of | ā?| < Insert Picture > has merged with | ā| < Insert Picture >. Keeping in view the problems of the Urdu script one comes to the conclusion that Urdu scripts need some reform at least for the sake of the learners. The scholars of Urdu, who are not in favour of deleting these Arabic phonemes, argue that deletion will have some serious implications. For it will also affect the meanings of the words in Urdu, e.g. /a’lim/ < Insert Picture > is one of the names of god (Allah) but if we write /alīm/ < > (replacing < ﻉ > ain with < ﺍ > alif it will have different connotation. (The meaning of /alīm/ is /dardmand/ < Insert Picture >). But Urdu scholars should also take into account that in normal speech both these different words are pronounced phonetically with the same articulations. Difference in meaning can only be judged contextually. The Arabic borrowed phonemes are being used in Urdu writing but even though we do not correctly pronounce them. Urdu speakers replace or equate them with other phonemes in the language. These can be shown by the following square boxes.
1.Insert Picture
2.Insert Picture
3.Insert Picture
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The Urdu speakers find it difficult to articulate the phonemes in the right side boxes in their normal speech. In fact, in day-to-day speech we observe that the Urdu speakers equate < ﻉ > ain and < ﻋ > hamzā with < ﺍ > alif; the <ﻃ> tooee with < ﺖ > tee; <ﺙ > see and < ﺺ > svād with <ﺲ > sīn; the letter < ﺡ > hee with < ﻩ > hee and the letter < ﺬ > zāl, < ﻅ > zooee and < ﺾ > zvād with <ﺯ> zee.
