V. SPEECH COMMUNITY

Identity Group (mother tongue speakers) and their bi/multilingualism. The Thadou’s are known with the language they speak. Their language, apart from the culture serve as the marker of their identity. The majority of the people use Manipuri to communicate with the Manipuris and the Nagas. There is mutual understanding between the Paites, Simtes, Zous, Vaiphei, Gangte, Hmar and including Mizos. The educated people can speak English and Hindi. But those languages are not used in communicating either within the community or with the other tribes of Manipur.

LANGUAGE CONTACT, CODE MIXING, AND CODE SWITCHING:

LANGUAGE CONTACT:

Thadou language has been in constant contact with other languages like Manipuri, the Lingua Franca of the state and with other Nagas languages within contagious areas. There is no mutual influence of language between the Nagas and the Kukis, but some loan words from Manipuri have come in the Thadou language as a result of Language contact and the absence of the terms in language. There is constant language contact between Thadou and other closely related languages of the Kuki tribes such as the Paite, Vaiphei, Simtes, Zous, Gangte, Hmars, and Mizos. This has created a linguistic scenario where features from all this languages are blended together. This can be the case of code mixing for these tribes of Kuki including Thadou.

CODE MIXING AND SWITCHING:

Code mixing is used only in limited cases when the speaker unable to say or convey his idea in his language, uses Manipuri or English to better explain his ideas. This is not common among the illiterates and old folks, but the educated groups and the younger generation switch on either to English or Manipuri in the course of their conversation.

(2) GENRES:

(a) Fiction, short stories, Poetry, Commentaries, Autobiographies, and Biographies. Among the short stories and essays available in written records Galngam le Hangsai, Chemtatpa, Lengbante, Jamdil, Sangah le Ahpi, the poignant romance of Khupting le Ngambom, Jonlhing le Nanglhun, Changkhatpu le Ahshijolneng, Khalvompu le Lenchonghoi; and folktales, such as Chipinthei le Mailangkoh, and others, represent the rich variety of the Kuki culture which are reflected in songs and music even in the present generation.

(1) REBEL LITERATURE:

Some of the written literatures on Kuki rebellion are written by writers like R.Brown (1874) and E.W.Dun (1886). To cite few of them are: Kuki Rebellion or Kuki punitive Measures, Kuki war of Independence, Kuki uprising and Thadou Gal (war) etc.

A REVIEW OF KUKI WAR OF INDEPENDENCE:

The North-Eastern region, the abode of the war-like tribes of the North-East India, had been once a land where the aborigines of the hill tribes often encountered the mighty British Imperial Forces against colonial subjugation during the 19th century in a bid to preserve and project their age-old liberty and freedom, which, in many cases, were no less momentous and far-reaching in the annals of the British Frontier India. One of the uprisings in this part of the region was the Kuki War of Independence or Kuki Rebellion.

In fact this was the only uprising, which the Imperial Forces failed to suppress for two full years entailing heavy losses of lives, money and materials. No doubt, the British India had to include the counter-operation of the war for grants of military honours such as the British General Service Medals, and the like to the officers and personnel who distinguished themselves in the operation.

To begin with, the causes of the war were in brief two-fold. First during the reign of Maharaja of Manipur Sir Churachand Singh, house-tax and free labour were raised from the hill tribes of Manipur, which were vehemently protested by the hill tribes. Added to this, the then Chief Commissioner of Assam, in view of the deteriorating law and order situation in the North-East, had enforced the arm-licensing control in Manipur as was done in the Chin hills restricting the use of fire-arms which had infuriated the Kuki Chiefs. When the Kuki Chiefs were thus in anger against the Britishers, the break out of the First World War came as a bomb-shell to the Kuki Chiefs when the Maharaja of Manipur was made to raise compulsory corps by the British Government from the hill people of Manipur to be employed in the war.

This served as the cause and the Kuki Chiefs openly flouted the order of the Maharaja and went to war against the British, which started in December 1917 and ended in May 1919. In this historic war of Independence, the British authorities under the direct command of Brigadier General Macquloid pressed into service the strength of 2400 riflemen in addition to 3000 riflemen of Burma Military Police in different sector of the war, a brief of which is given below.

1. The Eastern Sector:

The Chahsat area, was placed under the command of Capt. Parry and Black. In this counter operation, Lhukhomang also known as Pache had put up stiff resistance as a result of which Lt. Molsworth of Burma Military Police was killed in action. Serious encounter took place at Vahong, Maokot and Phaisat.

2. South-Eastern Sector:

This covered Mombi (Lonpi) area and the area bordering Chin Hills were under the command of Lt. Halliday, Cpt. Coote and Askwith with a detachment of 120 riflemen each. In this encounter too, Ngulkhup, Chief of Mombi and Ngulbul, Chief of Lengya proved a force to reckon with till the end of the war. This sector was reinforced by Capt. Steadman from Lenakot in the South who came up to Haika where he was fatally injured.

3. Southern Sector:

This covered Henglep area which was placed under the Commands of Capt. Goodal Fox, Lts. Carter and Hooper. Here the Kuki Armies had effectively checked the advance of the British armies at Ukha and Henglep and successfully repelled the enemies after twelve hours of fighting. However, Ukha and Henglep were captured and destroyed by reinforcement of seven officers with 200 sepoys after fierce fighting.

4. Western Sector:

This covered Jampi area of Tamenglong, which was under the command of Major Marshal, Lt. Walker, Capt. Montifiers and Lt. Needham. In this encounter, Enkhup, the Commander of Kuki Army and Tintong, the Hero of the Kuki army successfully withstood the advance of the British troops at Laijang, Khemuching, Dullen and Jampi. It is said that the brave Lengsei had ambushed the British armies single-handed in the jungle and killed three white men, when he was shot at the leg and then was overpowered. His head was chopped off and taken away as trophy by the British.

5. Northern Sector:

This covered the Naga Hills, which was under the command of Lt. Prior and Sanderson of 3rd Assam Rifles with a detachment of 200 riflemen. In Tenning area, the Kuki armies set ‘stone-trap’ above the foot-path where the British troops had to pass at Chongjang village over a precipice, the boulders of which were released through a kind of remote control where the enemy troops were completely crashed to death without a single shot. In this sector many Kuki villages were torched to the ground when the villagers had to run for life in the jungle for days together in the Eastern front of the same Sector. In the Eastern front of the same sector, i.e., at Kanjang village, Kuki commander Haolun Lotjem shot an white man to death.

6. Assam Sector:

This covered the North-Cachar hill, which was placed under the command of Capt. Copeland where serious fighting took place near Halflong, Maibang etc.

7. Burma Sector:

Burma sector covered a vast area from Upper Burma to Chin Hills to the south. This area was placed under the command of Capt. Prior and Lt. Rees on the north covering Somra Tract, Cpt. Falkland and Cpt. Montifirs of 1st and 3rd Assam Rifles with a strength of 150 each were placed from Indian side and Col. Abbay, Major Burns and Wright Superintendent of Chin hills were placed to deal with warriors of the mainland Burma. In Somra Tract, the Kuki armies under the command of Laso Haokip fought bravely and killed many soldiers.

At Tizu River a fierce fighting took place with the British soldiers under the leadership of Subedar Hangspal Limbu of Niema post in which the Kukis killed 30 soldiers and drove them back to Somra. In the encounter in the mainland Burma, they sustained heavy causalities at Kapi, Aiton, Shurkwa, Naring, and Sakta where Wright and Alexander were badly injured. On the other side, Cpt. Montifiers entered Chin Hills from Lenakot and destroyed the stockades at Haika killing Ngulbu, Chief of Longya along with his children in the most pathetic way. In this encounter other brave fighters who had laid down their lives were Thangkhopao, Chief of Aibol and Doungul Taithul who was killed at Haika. In this encounter, JC Higgins Political Agent was ambushed at Khongoi and sustained bullet injuries.

Thus the two-year long encounter between the British and the Kukis came to an end with the announcement of general amnesty by the British Government and with the surrender of Chengjapao, Chief of Aisan followed by Pache Chief of Chahsat. The long-drown war came to an end on 20th May 1919.

According to L.W. Shakespeare, 86 rebel villages were destroyed, 112 villagers submitted, 15 villages deserted, 970 muskets were confiscated from Chin Hills.

The following Chiefs were arrested and jailed:
 1. Chengjapao, Chief of Aisan
 2. Khotinthang, Chief of Jampi
 3. Lhukhomang (Pache), Chief of Chahsat
 4. Pakang, Chief of Henglep
 5. Tintong, Chief of Laijang
 6. Semchung, Chief of Ukha
 7. Lenthang, Chief of Goboh
 8. Heljason Chief of Loibol
 9. Mangkholun, Chief of Thingphai
10. Ngulkhokai Chief of Chahsat
11. Enjakhup, Chief of Thenjang

Again, those who were sent to Taunggyi jail in Burma were:
 1. Kamjahen, Chief of Phailengjang
 2. Letkhothang, Chief of Khotuh
 3. Semkholun, Chief of Phaisat
 4. Vumngul, Chief of Tujang
 5. Haokhopao, Chief of Molvailup
 6. Tongkholun Chief of Molvom
 7. Tuk, Chief of Tonglhang
 8. Sonkhopao Chief of Tuisem
 9. Letjahao, Chief of Khomunnom
10. Komdem Baite, Chief of Sachih

As far as the causalities and death of the British armies were concerned, 80 regular armies were killed in action with one British army officer whereas 151 were wounded including one officer. In addition to this, 478 army personnel died of diseases. Those who received awards and medals for distinguished service were one officer getting CIE award, one OBE, and 15 officer got IDSM and one officer got King’s Police Medal.

As aforesaid, the war was brought to a close by the declaration of a general political amnesty by the British Government. In spite of the apparent sincerity on the part of the British Government offering amnesty, it is to be seen that the declaration on the whole was fraught with treachery in which the belligerent community, was completely hoodwinked and trapped by the colonial rulers. For instance, the declaration of the general amnesty envisaged among other things which included surrender by the warriors on or before 1st November 1919, payment of all house tax dues for the defaulting years and surrender of arms to be fixed by the authority.

Though it was named amnesty, in practice it was a naked ploy to trap the vanquished. Thus, Chengjapao, Chief of Aisan, who surrendered on 11th October 1919, with a beautiful tusk worth Rs 300/- was denied amnesty, and was arrested and jailed. So was the fate of Lhukhomang (Pache) Chief of Chahsat.

To try the belligerent warriors, the British Government set up a War Tribunal composed of the warlords who in the fair name of justice and fair play pronounced their verdict sentencing all the participant chiefs to undergo imprisonment in Sadiya and Taunggi jail for 15 years' term which was reviewed afterward. Not content with their prevaricated verdict, the War Tribunal came down heavily on the vanquished and beleaguered community by imposing malicious and vindictive punishment forcing the remnant villages to construct roads, bridal path without food, shelter and clothing.

It was recorded that the British India Government had on this count constructed 740 miles of roads connecting Imphal with far-flung administrative headquarters. The outrageous persecution of the Kukis did not end here. In their attempt to crush the truculent spirit of the Kuki and stem permanently the possible future resurgence, they succeeded in hammering wedges into the body-politic of the Kuki community stalling the hinges of political, social and cultural unity and cohesion which plagued the whole Kuki society till today.

TRANSLATION

L2-L1. The only translation from L2-L1 is Bible by some people like Dr. T. Lunkim and Dr. Holngam etc.

APPEARANCE AND PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS:

All the Thadous resemble each other in appearance and have, generally speaking, a Mongolian type of countenance. The Haokips and Kipgens are fairer than the others and have a yellow-olive complexion. The same may be said of the Doungels. The shitlhous, Lhouvum, Shingshon1 etc., are of dark complexion and some are of a distinct copper colour. The chiefs are usually fairer and the reason for this is not far to see as they do not expose themselves to climatic influences to the same extent as their villagers, yet they are not as fair as those of the Haokips and Kipgens even when compared with the ordinary villagers.

Miscegenation with captives and neighboring tribes exists among the Thadous even at the present day. There are examples at Kandung village in the Naga Hills and in many Thadou villages where the Naga slaves have been absorbed. There are admitted instances of Manipuris becoming Thadous. The chiefs lose their position by such marriages, and they occur mainly among the ordinary villagers.

Beards and whiskers are uncommon but there is a distinct liking for a few hair at the comers of the mouth on the upper lip. It is not common to see men picking out the other hairs on their upper lip with tweezers. The older men, however, appear to appreciate a few hair on their chin and some have cultivated a distinct ‘imperial’. A boy’s hair on his head is regularly shaved off leaving a tuft at the back end of the head. When the boy comes to an age he is allowed to grow the rest. The hair is not cut again and, when long enough, it is tied up in the knot at the back of the head. It is combed back from the forehead and greased with pig’s fat at frequent intervals. So it remains tuft to the end of his life. Unfortunately they have taken to cutting their hair short, perhaps owing to Mission influence, and say it is cooler and less trouble-some to manage. The old folk naturally view this attitude with grave displeasure and vow those who do so will never reach MITHI Khul. (The village of the departed souls).

The girls are also shaven except for a small patch at the back of the head which is allowed to grow unhampered. When they reach maturity – sometimes little before – their hair is allowed to grow. Here again plenty of pig’s fat is used. When long enough it is divided at the center of the head and plaited into two strands on each side of the head. When this grows longer the strands are crossed and brought round the head and tied in the front above the forehead. The plait on the right side is taken around the back of the head and over the left ear, while the plait on the left goes round the back of the head and over the right ear. A piece of cotton or combings of hair are interplaited at the end of these two strands so as to facilitate the typing of them at the front of the head. A husband may used his wife’s hair oil (Pig’s fat) or vice versa, but it is ‘taboo’ for another person to do so other than of that house-hold.

The reason given being that it would cause the hair to fall out and some awful ailment would be the consequences to the culprit.2 Now-a-days, cheap and smelly market hair oil is becoming common and there does not appear to be any objection to sharing a bottle. As men and women reach a ripe age they pay less attention to their coiffure and it becomes caked with dirt. Curly hair or waved hair is uncommon, but in some cases they are seen. The hair generally is black with a copper tint. Hair on the chest and armpits, a secondary male characteristic, is not found.

The Sithlohous are squatter than the Haokips and Kipgens. The others may safely be placed in the same category as the Sithlhous. They have disproportionately large thighs and calves and appearance of being heavy and slow, which they undoubtedly are both physically and mentally. The Haokips and the Kipgens differ, as they are taller and not so heavy about the lower limbs. They are generally more agile and energetic, both mentally and physically than clan of other bolds.

They are all good walkers and they do not walk on their toes when going uphill. They plant the whole of their foot down pressing upwards with their thighs and calves for the forward step. Even on the level the same action is noticeable and they do not straighten out their legs for the next step but assume a kind of bent knee action of their own. This can be noticed among most hill men.

Abortion and infanticide are not uncommon when a woman becomes pregnant by illegitimate means. The cases of suicide happen occasionally and they usually occur by consuming poison. The cause for it generally is some incurable illness or poverty. A case is known where a women poisoned her husband in order to marry her paramour, but this one may class as exceptional. Divorce is easy and frequent, owing to the fact that the spouses do not know each other before marriage and when marriages are generally arranged by parents. This, however, is dying out and the sons and daughters are insisting on having more say in the matter.

Comparatively few Thadous can swim but a good many are fairy expert with bamboo rafts which they used for crossing the rivers. The Churachandpur, sub-division section and the Thadous of Manipur state are more expert in water and on rafts than the other.

All Thadous are exceedingly expert in making all kinds of traps for animals, birds and fish. Hunting plays an important part in their lives and customs. They are good trackers and are never happier than when on the trail. Their next interest is ju jar and lastly, but not the least, a quarrel over marriage price dates back to three or more generations.

The Thadou is migratory and moves from village to village on the slightest pretext. Sometimes the whole village vanishes because they have had enough places and the wander – lust has got hold of them.

The chiefs have great power among them but this is being shaken by the advance of administration – or should it be called civilisation? Person who are not related to the chiefs are to be seen as the heads of villages just because they have some wealth behind them and are, in consequence, able to get ready followers. The chiefs naturally do not appreciate such persons setting up as such, especially when they become next door neighbours. Yet the chiefs often have themselves to blame as they become too exacting on their villagers.

INSTITUTION AND FORMALITIES:

The life of a Kuki is bounded by customs and traditions from which he/she cannot deviate, so a Kuki circle rounds three sets of relatives. In Social-economics, political and religious matters one moves through these sets of relatives. It is common practice that a Kuki has to marry ones mother’s brother’s daughter by way of preference. When a boy marries the daughter or sister or aunt of a man he earns the relation of his children and become Tucha of his in-laws. i.e their ‘Pute’ or maternal kin. The Pute become the Songgao relative to the son-in-law and his children. He is referred to as Mahpa, which means brother in-law. But his sons are Tucha. There are certain duties and obligation that are assigned to the Tucha. In time of weal and woe, a Tucha is supposed to stand by his Songgao. If a Songgao kills an animal in his social obligation for a feast, his Tucha has to dress the meat.

(II) LUONGMAN:

Songgao has a right, known as Luongman which he can claim from his Tucha as a price of the corpse in the event of death of (1) Mother of the ego (2) wife of the ego in case of mother’s brother’s daughter’s marriage’ (3) the son of daughters; and (4) the son of sisters. If the mother of an ego dies, Luongman is claimed as the price of the corpse, by the brother of the former, with his ‘Tucha’ relatives. This is done by the father of the ego’s mother or son of the ego’s mother’s brother. In case the woman does not have a son, the ‘Songgao’ relative cannot claim Luongman. Similarly in Songgao’s aunt or sister or daughter’s son dies, Luongman is claimed on the ground that the deceased has given birth to the scions and that the line of the family descent moves on. In case the Tucha fail to pay the price or ‘Luongman’ it is considered an insult to the latter.

(111) Distribution of Meat:

Food other than satisfying hunger, also satisfies other functions which includes, the social obligations towards ones relatives, In-laws, Chiefs and to show hospitality (Firth 1958:64-660). The Kuki life is centred on community living and social, political and religious life. If a man kills an animal or wild animals, the flesh of the same is distributed among certain categories of relatives. In all such cases, the Tucha relatives is given the waist part of the animal. It is believed that a man is born out of the waist of the daughter or sister or aunt in the family of the ego. It is known as Konglo Sa meaning reward for the labour of the waist of women. This practice still prevails among Kuki tribe of Anal, Mayon, etc. Similarly the neck portion of the meat Sanngong is given to the mother’s brother or mother’s father or mother’s brother’s (eldest) who are called Songgao relatives to the ego. This is in recognition of the source of life of the family of the ego.

(iv) Becha: The term Becha is representative in nature and has power and authority vested in the ego. Therefore the Becha relative, being the spokesman of the ego, has a very commanding authority. They are considered to be the ego himself. Becha in contrast to tucha and Songgao relationship is not necessarily a product of marriage alliance. By extension it can include a wide range of people, including good and reliable friends. The Becha relatives, therefore, include the following categories of people.

(1) Male member of an exogamous relatives;

(2) Male member of the same clan of the ego, except those of ‘Becha’ and 'Bechas’

(3) Close and reliable bosom friends of an ego.

(4) Persons of abilities who can shoulder the responsibilities associated with the Becha relatives to act or behave with the ego. The Becha has certain responsibilities and duties to perform. On a social occasion, in happiness or in sorrow they are expected to dress the meat and distribute it to different categories of relatives to furnish crockery and utensils.

THE CULTURE AND TRADITION OF THE KUKIS:

Since their forefather’s times, the Kukis have numerous types of culture and tradition. They are unique, interesting, and impressive. Rice is the staple food of this people. They domesticated a number of animals and some of them are very useful and helpful to their masters. Of these animals, Sel (mithun) is the most prized possession, while a dog is considered as a faithful animal. The festivals of these people include Lawm Sel Neh(a celebration by young people of the community after the season’s work is over), Chang Kut (a celebration by the whole community after rice harvest), Mim Kut (related to maize harvest and similar in content to Cha’ng Kut), Sa-Ai (a celebration of a successful big game hunt of big animals), Chang-Ai (a celebration of bounteous rice harvest), /Hun/(an occasion of worship in ancient times), Chawn le Han (hosting of this occasion involved feasting and holding of sporting events) and Kangkap (a game in which disc-liked seed is rolled) besides many others. There were also different kinds of musical instruments to enhance these festivities. Khong-pi (big drum), Khong-cha (small drum), Dah-pi (gong) Pengkul (trumpet), Gosem (bagpipe), Theile (flute), Theiphit (whistle), Selki (horn) & Lhemlhei (a peculiar mouth instrument) are a few musical instruments. These instruments were useful not only for raising the festival spirit, but also for adding solemnity to certain serious occasions. The folklore of the people abounds with the heroic adventures of Galngam le Hangsai, Chemtatpa, Lengbante, Jamdil, Sangah le Ahpi etc. The poignant romances of Khupting le Ngambom, Jonlhing le Nanglhun, Changkhatpu le Ahshijolneng, Khalvompu le Lenchonghoi; and folk tales, such as Chipinthei le Mailangkoh, and others, represents the rich variety of the Kuki culture. With regard to governance, Semang (cabinet) – the annual assembly of a Kuki village community held at the chief’s residence represents the Inpi (Assembly). In such an assembly, the Chief and his Semang and Pachong (cabinet members and auxiliary of Inpi) and all the household heads of the village congregate to discuss and resolve matters relating to the village and the community. The land of the Kukis is blessed with rich customs and traditions. Sawm, a community center for boys – was the center of learning in which Sawm-upa (an elder) does the teaching, while Sawm-nu took care of chores like combing their hair, washing garments, making beds, etc. The best students were recommended to the King’s or the Chief’s service, who eventually would become Semang & Pachong (ministers) in the courts, or gal – lamkai (generals) in the army. Lawm (a tradtional form of youth club) was an institution in which, boys and girls engaged in social activities, for the benefit of the individual and the community. It was also another learning institution. Every Lawm has lawm-upa (a senior member), Tollai-pao (overseer or superintendent), and Lawm-tangvo (assistant superintendent). Besides being a source of traditional learning, Lawm was also useful for imparting technical and practical knowledge to its members, especially with regard to farming methods, hunting, fishing and sporting activities such as – Khung – Kal (high jump, especially over a choice mithum), Kang Kap, Kangchoi Kap (top game), Suhtumkhaw (javelin throw using the heavy wooden implement for pounding -de-husking-paddy) and Songse (shot put). The Lawm was also a center where the young people learnt discipline and social etiquette. After harvest season, ‘Lawm meet’ is celebrated with a Lawm-se’1 (on the occasion, a mithun is slaughtered for the feast) and, as a commemoration, a pillar is erected. Dance and drinking rice-beer, which sometimes continues for days and nights accompany the event. The Kuki male traditionally wore his hair in the form of a Tuhcha (long hair rolled up in a bunch at the nape). His clothing consisted of a Boitong-Sangkhol (a half-sleeve jacket) and a Pheichawm (short lungi). They are renowned hunters and reputable warriors. Their hunting kit consists of Sellung-bawm (a leather waist-pouch for pellets), Se’lki meiloupai (an animal’s horn for storing gunpowder) and a knife. Their favorite past time is hunting. Often, all kinds of traps and snares are set. The fishing equipment consists of Len (fishing net), Bawm (basket trap), Ngakoi (fishing hooks). Ngoituh (a method of using dams and baskets in a flowing river), Ngalhei (draining out water) and Gusuh (a method of temporally stunning fish by using toxic herbs) were common methods of catching fish in small streams. The Kuki men took great price in big-games like hunting and killing of big animals was followed by sombre celebration. The Kukis believed that the big game hunted in a man’s lifetime would accompany him in his after-life journey-the spirits of animals would clear the onward path for him. It was therefore believed that a man was not complete unless he was successful in big game hunting; he would not be entitled to partake in /Lalju/, a special drink meant for those who have killed big game. The Kuki women traditionally wore their hair in two plaits braided around the head; they wore a Nih-San (a red slip) underneath a Ponve (a wrap-around). The ornaments included Bilba (earring), Hah le Chao (bracelets and bangles), Khi (necklace), and occasionally Bilkam (a type of ring-shaped earring worn to stretch the earlobes). Changsuh (grain-pounding), Changsep (winnowing), Ponkhon (cloth-weaving) and looking after domestic animals were some of the daily chores of the women folk. The woven designs of the Kuki women are unique and appreciated all over the world. Chang-ai, the place of honour for a good harvest was given to the lady of the house. This formed the highest honour accorded to the Kuki woman. The men folk occupied themselves with cane and bamboo crafts and house building. They were blacksmiths and also engaged in carpentry and other such jobs. The manufacture of guns and gunpowder were very specialized profession among men. Twi-changsu (water mill)’ and Chotlep (a sea-saw mechanism), are some of the ingenious methods used for pounding rice with minimum use of human energy. Sawh and Kengke (noise creating instruments) functioned as the scarecrow and were placed in the cultivated fields. Twisawh was another inventive contraption, which used running water from a stream making continual sounds to scare away birds and pests from standing crops. It is known that the Kukis were in possession of some documents, inscribed on leather, known as ‘Savun Lekhajo’1’ (scroll). These scrolls were lost in the passage of time and along with this, the Kukis also lost their script. Therefore, there is no known Kuki script. Today, the Roman script forms the basis for Kuki literature. Although the existence of formal learning institutions is not available, the Kukis were not unfamiliar with astronomy and astrology. They were able to study the stars and the phases of the moon and could forecast for themselves certain aspects of nature, particularly rainfall, drought etc. The legal system – arrangement of a girl’s marriage, bride-price, and the Chief’s administrative system, relief for widows and orphans – are elaborately and systematically defined in the Kukis’ way-of-life.

Traditionally, polygamy is not permissible. Capital punishment was never in practice. The maximum penalty was ‘bultuh’ (stockade in which the guilty was kept outside the village and provided food until death). This reflects the high ethics of the Kuki people. The Kukis also practiced Twilut, a judicial process of judgement by going under water. Twilut is a phenomenon in which the litigants are subjected to go under water to determine the culprit. It is an ultimate and decisive recourse for cases where the normal processes of trail by court does not reach a conclusive end. In the event of resorting to twilut, certain customs are strictly adhered to. The chief and elders of the community call upon the thempu (magic-medicine man/priest) to conduct the proceedings. For instance, in a boundary dispute, the two litigants are brought into the presence of the public. The ‘thempu’ then recites rituals, which includes the invocation of ‘Pathen’ (God), followed by the litigants being submerged in the water. The culprit becomes immediately apparent because she/he cannot remain underwater at all. Off the two litigants, the defaulter would be in absolute agony, experiencing extreme sensations of being inflamed from within, and therefore emerge to the surface. In contrast, the innocent person is able to remain under water, quite normally.

Religious Beliefs and Practices

To many primitive people, their world was full of play and counter play of music power, which supposedly influenced and shaped the destiny of men. It is true that some groups of people being confronted with problems and having failed to grapple with them, tried to attribute the cause of these problems to some unknown and unseen forces. These mysterious powers are generally called super naturals. Nanda (1984:196) describes: Supernatural refers to these powers, events and experience that are beyond ordinary human control and the laws of nature and outside reality as normally experienced. Every society has some set of beliefs and practices that enter into the relationship of the humans to the super naturals. Tylor (1874: 425-47) also gives the definition of ‘religion’ as the belief in super naturals. However, each society or a group of society has a traditional method of controlling these powers or to subordinate them through certain actions of occultism or esorteric practices, rites, rituals and ceremonies or celebrations in accompaniment with offerings, prayer or sacrifices so as to appease, placate or propitiate in order to enjoy a trouble-free life, having no anxiety or tension.

This in course of time, gradually take the shape of an institutionalized system of beliefs, rituals, rules, procedures, etc. through cults or systematized celebrated rituals or manifestations. With the passage of time, these are handed down from generation to generation and are entrenched into the thickly woven fabric of culture. Durkheim (1915:10), therefore, propounded the concept of religion as having grown out of the social experience of man. Probably, the Kuki groups of people from the hoary past adopted themselves with ecology and environment, and thereby fashioned their life style. Interactions with varied situations might have weathered or attuned the cultural core through their migrations from time immemorial. Series of rolling ridges with disproportionate undulations, forest-clad mountains of variable intensifies and gorging rivers might have influenced their cognitive system or cosmology. Seasonal variations and distinctive action patterns for survival strategies have perhaps contributed to the understanding about themselves. The transforming world with some concept of hitherto unseen forces, considered as supernaturals, also could be discernible to them. Thus supernaturalism has variations and distinction categories.

‘Concept of Chung-Pathien’

It is the concept of Chung Pathien or the source of All creations’ that is considered to be the highest benevolent God who lives in heaven or sky. Such concept of religion, according to ‘Andrew Lang’ (1887:327) manifests the belief in High Gods. He is believed to have created the universe and all the living beings. All people firmly believe that everything concerned with prosperity, growth and strength in life is nothing but omniscient. Thus, he is all powerful but doesnot want propitiation or worship or appeasement through sacrifices and offerings. He does good to all and sundry. The concept of Chung-Pathien is abstract and thus it has no anthropomorphic form or a permanent place or residence. The nomenclature of Chung-Pathien signifies an honorific term used addressing a male person with respect and veneration. Dichotomy prevails while conceptualizing Chung-Pathien, viz, the benevolent with evil or bad power having the forces of destruction, and all other forms of evil activities. He is supposed to live in the underworld and is called Noimangpa. He is believed to have been sent by Chung-pathien from the heaven or the sky to dwell at ‘Kholmun’ where all living being are found.

‘Evil Incarnate Entities’

Therefore, the world of super naturals reigns supreme among the Kukis, while the other entities are related to evil and are susceptible of being appeased or placated through performance of Phuisap. The priest called Thiempu, officiates the ceremony among the Kukis. Some evil spirits namely:

1. ‘Amhoise’ devil of the jungle and ‘Inmunse’ devil of the house, meaning ‘a cursed place’ by a combination of the two words. Souls of the persons meeting unnatural death turn into this type of dangerous spirits. At the place where unnatural deaths occur, the spirits are supposed to create trouble to the people according to their own sweet will. In other words, the place is haunted by the soul of the person.

2. ‘Joumi’, is a dangerous male spirit. It frightens people and thus people die out of shock and fear. It is active during night and its form is said to vary; though mostly it is seen very tall it is said that it usually stands at the same height of any tree nearby which it happens to appear. The ‘Joumi’, is reportedly very fond of chicken. It kills mostly cocks and hen by throttling the neck and sucking its blood.

3. ‘Kalsamnu’: is considered to be a female spirit which is in–charge of keeping the souls of the individuals. After the death of a person it takes away the soul and keep them in a permanent resting place which is known as ‘Van’.

4. ‘Chomnu’: is another female spirit, but it rarely causes trouble to mankind. It is considered to be a harmless spirit.

5. ‘Gamlahlen’: is another male spirit who causes disease or sickness to the people. It resides in the jungle and to appease it, effigy of a buffalo made of clay is offered along with “ZU” and cock, un-boiled rice.

6. ‘Gamkao’: is an evil spirit of jungle. It is believed that Gamkao causes serious illness to person who meets it.

7. ‘Kaomei’: is an evil spirit which flies at night like a fire-fly in a much bigger volume of fire-ball.

8. ‘Kaosie’: is a greedy spirit, which can enter in a person and convert such person into different personality, changing the voice, the behaviour and strength. Such spirit can be released only when it is appeased with what it wants. ‘Ritual Formalities’ as Herskovits (1955:223) observed are the ways in which men seek to bring themselves into harmony with the powers of the universe. They may be intensely personal, or require participation by the entire group. They may be public or private. They may involve highly keyed emotional improvisation, or demand precision of movement set by an ancient tradition. They may call for the recitation of elaborate formulas, or may be wordless. They utilize special objects, carefully made and of intricate form or they may be restricted to non-material expression in word or song or dance. Any of them, or all, may be used to petition or compel action by powers whose resources transcend those of the human being who invokes them. Prayer is one of the principal categories of worship. It may be defined as the use of words to bring about the favourable intervention of powers of the universe in the affairs of men. It can vary from casual address to formalized plea, and may be specific or general in its reference. Rituals or ceremonies are the pivots round which some thought about supernatural rotate. Myths, Lore or some incantations are there and these are woven esoteric words which express gratitude and promises for future, vis-à-vis prayer for protection, help and security against rainy days. It is chanted in their own broken doggerel language which is known as ‘Phuisam’ meaning thereby utterances of words of magic called Doithu. These are impregnated with magical potentialities and are believed to have tremendous impact on the spirit. The sacred complex (Vidyarthi: 1962) as found elsewhere is not pronounced in the life of the Kukis, while dealing with the super naturals. The idea of a sanctuary is absent among them. As we find elsewhere, certain specific site, either fixed traditionally or finalized by the people, is conspicuous by their absence. It is done or finalized by the priest, Thiempu; His post is hereditary and practically he has to hold his position by his capabilities and social image. There are elaborate rituals, sometimes with offerings and sacrifices, as there is no anthropomorphic form of the diety and they believe in the presence of one God. Their religion therefore, is not based on pantheon but on monotheism, though some evil spirits having specific activities and manifestations are named. The Thiempu has to do everything through one irology which he gets during night while sleeping. Through dreams and visions, he gets all directions as to what he should do, when and with what materials or ingredients, what incantations are to be used etc. Theoretically, the priest is the only professional specialist in the trade in Kuki society. In the interpretations of dreams, visions, stars, omen etc. He is the individual who has to maintain communion in the form of sorcery or magic with the supernatural elements and the human beings. And some in the profession has acquired so much of knowledge that they can even counter any spell cast by evil withcraft. Naturally, therefore, his position in the society is highly esteemed as the Thiempu who is the priest of whatever religious form or belief they attribute. Hills, forest and rivers are conceived as having some potentialities and the people have to interact with them all the time for their existence and perpetuations. The bounty of nature is reflected through these natural phenomena. As such, the veneration and respect for these are unquestionable. Therefore, the priest on the following causes maintains some formalities. In the case of forest or sylvan spirit, locally called Gamlah vei, pig is sacrificed as an important item. Besides Pig, a little Koblu-Kanpoh (Pop-corn), Chang-Kanpoh (Pop-rice) and Nakena (a kind of leaf, the tree of which is called ‘Nake’) is also sacrificed. One side of the leaf is white, while the other is green). The ‘Phelex’, which is made of thin bamboo split, is normally used in construction particularly in fixing up the joints. This is also called Nang which is colored with white, black and red. It is quadrangular in shape. On top of it, another Nang, thinned further, constitutes the decorative part. Generally, all these ingredients are placed on a small cane-built platform which is normally used as a contraption for dining table. It is usually about six inches above the ground and is known as Akong Lui Na. This is called Maicham- the holy platform. All the above ingredients are spread over the Maicham on which blood of the sacrificed animal is sprinkled. The meat of the sacrificed animal is also placed on it in the following manner: a) A small portion is taken from the end of the mouth, b) Toes (the tips), c) Uppermost part of the ears and d)End of the tail. But, in the case of ceremonies associated with water-spirit living in the lake, stream or brook, known as Tui Thilha, a goat is sacrificed instead of a Pig. All the evil spirits require different kinds of animals as sacrifices. These are village rituals and these are performed during the spread of epidemic disease like cholera, etc. which spreads very fast and are contagious even. Excepting these festivities and elaborate rituals, there are familial worships or rituals which are done as per vows.

POLITICAL LIFE:

The political life of the Thadou is unique, even when they live in close proximity with neighbouring Naga tribes. It can be said that in their political life both the Naga and the Kuki maintained their own distinctness. The chief is the head of the village and the villagers do not own private land of their own. They can live as long as they enjoy the loyalty of the chief. The political life of the Thadou is reciprocal. The chief does everything for the benefit of the villagers and the people always lent support in all matters whether related to war or other social activities.

Cases: Both big and small cases are tried strictly according to the Thadou laws. Punishment for the guilt differs according to the gravity of the crimes. Thus all cases relating to theft, rape, adultery, property are tried by the chief and his council of minister within the laws of Thadou.

Taxes: The chief receives taxes in various forms, either in cash or kind, according to the nature of their trade. This includes Changse (one big basket full of paddy by each housewhole for the right of cultivation). Samal (the right hind leg of every animal killed). Khotha (one day free labour to the field of the chief by one person each from every family) Thil Kokai (It is an export fee paid to the chief, i.e. Rupees one for single barrel gun and Dahpi which is the large gong, and rupees two for double barrel gun. Sukai(rupees four is paid to the chief by the bride groom when he takes a girl for his wife). Now a days it is no longer practiced. The chief enjoys an important position in all the matters pertaining to political matters. His position is equal to the king.