Morphology (word structure)

All lexical items in Sindhi are either monomorphomic (simple) or polymorphomic (complex). A monomorphomic stem consists of a single root while a polymorphomic stem consists of a root followed by either one or more derivative suffix (es) or by one or more root(s) which in turn may be followed by one or more derivative suffixes. In other words, a stem may occur in its base form or it may be accompanied by another form (s) or suffix (es).

According to their grammatical functions all the stems in the language may be divided into three major classes; nominals, verbals and adjuncts. Nominal and verbal stems require inflection to enter into syntactic constructions and concords. Adjuncts are those stems which amplify a sentence. They stand by themselves in an utterance and normally are not inflected.

2.3.1. Nominals.

Nominals are those stems which may occur independently or inflect according to gender, number and case.

The nominals may be divided into three sub-classes: nouns, pronouns and adjectives.

2.3.1.1 Nouns.

On the basis of their structure, Sindhi noun stems may be simple or complex. Simple stems are monomorphomic forms i.e. /mәrdປ/ 'man', /hathi/ 'elephant' and /ghorປ/ 'house' etc. Complex stems are formed through derivation, composition and reduplication. Examples:

	/rándigәrປ/ 'player' (/irandI / 'game') 
	/khirәvaro/ 'milkman' (/khirປ/ 'milk') 
	/oŗopaŗo/ 'neighborhood' 

2.3.1.1.1 Inflectional Categories.

In Sindhi nouns are assigned to one of the two genders; masculine (m) and feminine (f). Most of the masculine nouns end in /-o/ or /-ປ/ i.e. /chokIro/ 'boy' and /mәrdປ/ 'man'. Some masculine nouns also end in /-i/, /-I/, /-Ә/ and /-u/; i.e. /dhob̉i/ 'washer man', /seţhI/ 'rich merchant', /raja/ 'king' and /sadhu/ 'saint' etc.

Most of the feminine nouns end in /-i/ or /-ә/; i.e. /chokiri/ 'girl' and /כratә/ 'women'. Some feminine nouns also end in /-I/, /-a/ or /-ປ/, i.e. /sכţI/ 'cousin sister', /malha/ 'garland' and /sәsປ/ mother-in-law' etc.

These nouns inflect according to their number: Singular (sg) and Plural (pl) and case: direct (dir) vocative (voc) and oblique (obl.) generally the nouns take inflectional suffixes according to their ending which are given below:

			Sg				pl
		Dir	voc.	Obl		dir 	voc	obl
Masculine:	- o	-a	-e		-a	-o	-nI
		-ປ	-ә	-ә		-ә	-ә	-nI
		-I	-I	+-ә		-i 	+o 	-nI
		-u	-u	+-Ә		-u	-o	-nI
		-I	-I			-ũ	-ũ	-nI
		-a      -a	-a		-ũ	-o	-nI

Feminine:-	 -İ	-İ	+-ә		-ũ	-ũ	-nI
		-I	-I	-I		-ũ	-ũ	-nI
		-Ә	-ә	-ә		-ũ	-ũ	-nI
		-a	-a	-a		-ũ	-ũ	-nI
		-ປ	-ປ	-ປ		-ũ	-ũ	-nI

Examples:
Masculine 
		Sg.				Pl.
	Dir          voc  	obl.		Dir	    voc	        obl 
	/chokIr//chokIre//chokIre khe/		/chokIrәo//chokIrәo//chokIrәnI khe/
	'boy'	'o boy'	'to the boy''	boys'	'o boys'	'to the boys'

	/mәrdu/ /mәrdә//mәrdә khe/		/mәrdә/ /mәrdo/ /mәrdәnI khe/
	'man' 'o man' 'to the man'		'men' 'o men' 'to the men'

/dhobՙi/ /dhobՙi/ /dhobՙiә khe/          /dhobՙi/ /dhobՙio/ /dhobՙyປnI khe/
'washer man' 'o washer man, 		'washer men' 'o washer men,
'to the washer man			'to the washer men

/sadhu/ /sadhu/ /sadhuә khe/             /sadhu/ /sadhປo/ /sadhປnI khe/
'saint' 'o saint' 'to the saint'	 'saints' 'o saints' 'to the saints'

/seţhI/ /seţhI/ /seţhI khe/		/seţhyũ/ /seţhyũ/ /seţhyປnI khe/
'marchant' 'o marchant			'marchants' 'o marchants
 'to the marchant'				'to the marchants'

/raja/ /raja/ /raja khe/ 			/raja/ /raja/ /rajaປnI khe/
'king' 'o king' 'to the king'		'kings' 'o kings' 'to the kings'

Feminine:
/chokIri/ /chokIri/ /chokIrә khe/	/chokIryũ/ /chokIyũ//chokIryປnIkhe/
'girl' 'o girl' 'to the girl'		'girls' 'o girls' 'to the girls'

/sכţI/ /sכţI/ /sכţI khe/		/sכţyũ/ /sכţyũ/ /sכţyunI khe/
'cousin   'o cousin   'to the cousin     'cousin   'o cousin    'to the cousin
sister'     sister'       sister'	 sisters'    sisters'      sisters'

/כrәtә/ /כrәtә/ /כrәtә khe/ 		/כrәtũ/ /כrәtũ/ /כrәtປnI khe/
'woman' 'o woman' 'to the woman'	'women' 'o women' 'to the women'

/malha/ /malha/ /malha mẽ/		/malhaũ/ /malhaũ//malhaປnI mẽ/
'garland' 'o garland' 'in the garland'	'garlands' 'o garlands' 
							'inthe garlands'
/sәsປ/ /sәsປ/ /sәsປ khe/		/sәsũ/ /sәsũ/ /sәsປni khe/
'mother-in-law' 'o mother-in-law' 	'mothers-in-law' 'o mothers-in-law'
		'to the mother-in-law'			'to the mothers-in-law'

     3.1.1.2. Notes: 

    1. In Sindhi, proper nouns are also inflected like common nouns. 
		Examples:
		Dir 		voc		obl.
		/gopalo/	/gopala/ 	/gopale khe/
		'Gopalo'	'o Gopalo'	'to Gopalo'
		/mohIni/	/mohIni/	/mohIniә khe/
		'Mohini'	'O Mohini'	 'to Mohini'
		/mປmbәi/ 			 /mປmbәi ә mẽ/
		'Mumbai'			 'In Mumbai'

2. No postposition is used with direct and vocative forms. Each noun in the oblique form is followed by a postposition. In the past, transitive type construction and the subject was used in the oblique form and do not have any postposition. In such cases the suffix + f / may be considered to maintain the system. Examples:
/chokIro xәtປ lIkhe tho/ 'The boy writes a letter'
/chokIre Ø xәtປ lIkhyo/ 'The boy wrote a letter'.

     3. The feminine direct and vocative forms one identical group in the language. 

     4. Some nouns mainly kinship terms take different plural markers. Examples:
		sg			pl
	/bhaປ/ 'brother'		/bhaປrә/ 'brothers'
	/bheņә/ 'sister'		/bhenәrປ/ 'sisters'

      5. /-i/ and /-I/ are changed to /-Y/ before taking /thũ/ 
	marker /-ũ/. Examples: 
		sg			pl 
	/seţhI/ 'marchant' 	/seţhyũ/ 'marchants'/
	/bhItI/ 'wall'		/bhItyũ/ 'walls'
	/chokIri/ 'girl'	/chokIryũ/ 'girls'

      6. Long vowels become short before taking the plural oblique marker /-nI/. Examples:
		sg				pl
		/sadhu/ 'saints' 		/sadhປnI khe/ 'to the saints' 
		/rajaũ/ 'kings'			/rajaປnI khe/ 'to the kings'
		/chokIryũ/ 'girls'		/chokIryປnI khe/ 'to the girls' 
		/כrәtũ/ 'women' 		/כrәtປnI khe/ 'to the  'women'

      7. The English borrowing ending in /-I/ drop /-I/ before taking plural 
          marker /-ũ/. /-Y/  is not used with these nouns.
	Examples: 	sg.				Pl
		/bәsI/ 'bus'			/bәsũ/ 'buses'
		/nәrsI/ 'nurse' 		/nәrsũ/ 'nurses'

Many Sindhi speakers drop /-I/ abo in singular forms and produce these forms with consonant ending.

8. In some cases mainly locative, instrumental and ablative optionally case marker are added to the nouns and postposition are dropped. Examples:

	/ghәro mẽ/  ~ /ghәrI/ 'in the house'
	/hәthә sã/  ~ /hә thã/ 'by hand'
	/zalປnI mәrdәnI sudho/  ~ /zalẽ mәrdẽ/ 'along with women and men'
	/ghәrә khã/  ~ /ghәrã/ 'form the house'

2.3.1.2. Pronouns.

Semantically pronouns are substituted for the nouns. Their number is very limited in the language.

2.3.1.2.1. Main types of pronouns.

All the pronouns can be divided into eight groups: personal demonstrative, specific demonstrative, indefinite, interrogative, reflective, relative and co-relative.

Most of the pronouns inflect according to their number and case. The inventory pronouns along with their oblique forms is given below.

2.3.1.2.2 Notes.

(1) There is gender distinction in the third person / demonstrative, specific demonstrative, indefinite, interogative (animate), relative and correlative when they occur in singular direct form. There is no gender distinction in other pronoun forms.

Examples:
/hi mastәrປ ahe/ 'He is a teacher'
/hiә mastәryaņi ahe/ 'she is a lady teacher'
/Iho műhĨjo kItabປ ahe/ 'This (particular) is my book'.
/Iha hປnәji kapi ahe/ 'This (particular) is his note book'.
/ko bՙahIrI vәղe pYo/ 'some body (m) is going out'.
/ka kәmIre mẽ vei/ 'Some body ( f ) went in the room.
/hu kerປ ahe/ 'who is he?'
/huә kerә ahe/ 'who is she?'

/jo kәmIre mẽ veţho ahe so hປnәjo bhaປ ahe/ '(A person) who is sitting in the room is his brother' /ja klasә mẽ paŗhe pei sa asãJi mastәrYaņi ahe/
'(A lady) who is teaching in the class is our teacher'.

(2). The inanimate interrogative /cha/ is identical in all the cases.

(3). The first and second person possessives and reflective possessive are expressed by /mŰhĨ-/, /tŰhĨ-/ and /pә๊hĨ-/ respectively followed by the postposition /J-gender-number-case marker/.

Examples:
/mŰhĨJo/ my ; /tŰhĨjo/ 'your (sg)', /pә๊hĨjo/ 'own'

Other possessives are expressed by the regular oblique forms followed by postposition /J-gender- number-case maker.
Examples.
/әsãjo/ 'our', /tәvhãjo/ 'yours (pl.)'
/hປnәjo/ 'his/her' /hປnәnIjo/ 'their'

2.3.1.2.3. Pronominal suffix type constructions.

At the morphological level the pronominal suffix type construction is one of the main peculiarities of the Sindhi language.

A pronoun phase can be optionally dropped adding pronominal suffix to nouns (only some singular kinship terms), postposition or verbs. In other word a pronominal suffix is a substitute for a pronoun phrase.

Examples:
Pronoun Phase			Pronominal suffix
/mŰhĨjo ghoţປ / ~/ ghoţәmI/ 'my husband'
/tŰhĨjo ghoţປ / ~/ ghoţәhĨ/ 'your husband'
/hປnәjo ghoţປ / ~/ ghoţәsI/ 'her husband'
/hປnә khe / ~/ khәsI/ 'to him /her'
/hປnәnI khe / ~ / khәnI/ 'to them'
/mű vәţI kItabu ahe/  ~ /kItabປ әthәmI/
 'I have a book'
/mű әmbປ kha ahe/  ~ /әmbປ khadhປmI/ 'I ate a mango'

The pronominal suffix type constructions are not discussed in detail in this chapter.

2.3.1.3 Adjectives.

Adjectives are a sub-class of nominals which qualify nouns and pronouns.

2.3.1.3.1 Formation of adjectives.

Structurally adjectival stems may be divided into two groups: simple and complex monomorphomic roots which can stand themselves. one called simple stems as /sປţho/ 'good' and /hošyarປ/ 'clever' etc. complex adjectival stems are formed through derivation, composition and reduplication; as /gປlabi/ 'rosy', /khປlyәlປ/ 'opened', /bәģປlo bhәģәtປ/ 'hypocrite' and /gәrmagәrәmປ/ 'very hot'

3.1.3.2 Main types of Adjectives.

Semantically the adjectives may be divided into three sub-classes: Adjectives of quality, Adjectives of quantity and Adjectives of identity.

2.3.1.3.2.1 Adjectives of quality.

They add some quality to the nouns; as /sປţho chokIro/ 'good boy' and /xәrabປ sәI/ 'bad thing'. etc.

2.3.1.3.2.2. Adjectives of quantity.

They indicate the quantity of the nouns 
/thoro khirປ/ 'a little milk'   
/ghәղo kItabә/ 'many books'

The cardinal numeral are also a part of these adjectives. Structurally the following cardinals are monomorphomic.

/hIkປ/ 'l' , /bՙә/ '2', /ţe/ '3', /carI/ '4'
/pәրjә/ '5', /chәhә/ '6', /sәtә/ '7', /әţhә/ '8'
/nәvә/ '9', /ḍՙәhә/ '10' /sכ/ 'hundred'
/hәzarປ/'1000' 

/lәkhປ/ '1 00 000' /kIroŗປ/ '10 million'
/әrәbປ/ '1000 million' /khәrәbປ/ '1 00 000 million'.

Other cardinals are composite forms, which are given below.
 /yarәhә๊/ '11' /bՙarәhә๊/ '12' /terәhә๊/ '13'
/coḍՙәhә๊/ '14' /pәndrәjә๊/ '15' /sorәhә๊/ '16'
/sәtrәhә๊/ '17' /әrIŗhә๊/ '18' /ປղvihә/ '19'
/vihә/ '20' /ekihә/ '21' /bՙavihә/ '22' 
/ţevihә/ '23' /covihә/ '24' /pәnjປvihә/ '25'
/chәvihә/ '26' /sәtavihә/ '27' /әţhavihә/ '28' 
/ປղәţihә/ '29' /ţihә/ '30' /ekәţihә/ '31' 
/bՙәţihә/ '32' /ţeţehә/ '33' /coţihә/ 34' 
/pәրjәţihә/ 35' /chәţihә/ '36' /sәtәţihә/ '37'
/әţhәţihә/ '38' /ປղetalihә/ '39' /calihә/ '40'
/eketalihә/ '41' /bՙaetalihә/ '42' /ţetalihә/ '43'
/coetalihә/ '44' /pәրjetalihә/ '45' /chaetalihә/ '46'
/sәtetalihә/ '47' /әţhetalilә/ '48' /ປրvәրjahປ/ '49' 
/pәրjahປ/ '50' /ekvәրjahປ/ '51' /bՙavәրjahປ/ '52'
/ţevәրjahປ/ '53' /covәրjahປ/ '54' /pәրjvәրjahປ/ '55'
/chavәրjahປ/ '56' /sәtປvәրjahປ/ '57' /әţhປvәրjahປ/ '58'
/ປղәhәţhI/ '59' /sәţhI/ '60' /ekәhәţhI/ '61' 
/bՙahәţhI/ '62' /ţehәthI/ '63' /cohәţhI/ '64'
/pәրJәhәţhI/ '65' /chahәţhI/ '66' /sәtәhaţhI/ '67'
/әţhәhәţhI/ '68' /ປղәhәtәrI/ '69' /sәtәrI/ '70'
/әkәhәtәrI/ '71' /bՙahәtәrI/ '72' /ţehәtәrI/ '73'
/cohәtәrI/ '74' /pәրjәhәtәrI/ '75' /chahәtәrI/ '76'
/sәtәhәtәrI/ '77' /әţhәhәtәrI/ '78' /ປղasi/ '79'
/әsi/ '80' /ekasi/ '81' /bՙyasi/ '82'
/ţIyasi/ '83' /corasi/ '84' /pәրjasi/ '85'

/unanәve/ '86' /sәtasi/ '87' /әţhasi/ '88'
/ປղanәve/ '89' /nәve/ '90' /ekanәve/ '91' 
/bՙyanәve/ '95' /chәhanәve/ '96' /sәtanәve/ '97'
/әţhanәve/ '98' /nәvanәve/ '99'.

The composite cardinals are formed with morphophonemic changes which are not analyzed in this chapter.

Above hundred numerals are proceeded as; /hIkປ sכ ţe/ '103' and /ţe hәzәrә b̉ә sכ pәրjetalihә/ '32 45' etc.

The following fractionals are monomorphomic. /paປ/ ' ¼ ' /әdhປ/ ' ½ ' /mປno/ ' ¾ ' /sәva/ ' 1 ¼ ' and /әdhai/ '2 ½ ', other fractionals are formed with the help of /sәva/ 'and a quarter' /saḍha/ 'and a half' and /pכղa/ 'less by a quarter'.

Examples:
/pכղab̉ә/ ' 1 ¾ ' /sәva b̉ә/ '2¼' /pכղa ţe/ '2¾' /sәva ţe/ '3¼ ' and /saḍha ţe/ '3½' etc.

Same system is used in denoting fractions of hundred, thousand and ten million etc.

Examples:
/sәva sכ/ '125' /әḍhai hәzarә/ '2500'
/saḍha te lәkhә/ '3,50,000' etc.

The suffix /-i/ is added to a numeral to form aggregatives.

Examples:
/b̉әi/ 'both' , /ţәi/ 'all the three', /carәi/ all the four' and /pәրjәi/ 'all the five' etc.

The suffixes /-ko/ and /-ro/ are used to form the approximate collectives. Examples:

/ḍՙәhako/ 'approximately ten'
/viharo/ 'approximately twenty'
/ţiharo/ 'approximately thirty' etc.

The indefinite numeral which may be called multidinouns are formed by adding the suffix /-ẽ/ to numeral. Examples:

/sәvẽ/ 'hundreds' and /hәzarẽ/ 'thousands' etc. 

The multiplicatives are formed by adding the suffix /űղo/ to a numeral. Examples: /b̉ino/ 'double' /ţino/ 'three fold' /cәűղo/ 'four fold' and /pәրjűղo/ 'five fold' etc.

2.3.1.3.2.3 Adjectives of identity.

The adjectives of identity are mainly constituted by ordinal numerals and pronominal adjectives. The ordinals are derived from cardinals by adding the suffix /-õ/.
Examples:
/pәhIrYõ/ 'first' /b̉yõ/ 'second' /tIyõ/ 'third' /cothõ/ 'fourth' /pәրjõ/ 'fifth' and /chәhõ/ 'sixth' etc.

When there is a compound numeral the last form takes ordinal marker. Examples: /b̉ә sכ sәtvanjahõ/ '257th'.

Almost all the pronouns may function as adjectives also. Examples:

/hi kItabປ/ 'this book' 
/Ihә kapi/ 'this (particular) note book' 
/műhĨjo dostປ/ 'my friend' 
/ko chokIro/ 'some boy' 
/jo choIri/ 'the girl who'.

2.3.1.3.3. Inflectional categories of adjectives:

On the basis of inflectional name, the Sindhi adjectives can be divided into two groups: declinable and indeclinable.

2.3.1.3.3.1. Declinable adjectives.

All the /-o/ ending adjectives are declinable. They inflect according to the gender and case of the followed noun. Examples:

		Dir					obl
/sປţho chokIro/ 'good boy' /sປţhe chokire khe/ 'to the good boy' 
/sປţha chokIro/ 'good boys' /sປţhәnI chokIrәnI khe/ 'to the good boys'
/sປţhi chokIri/ 'good girl' /sປţhiә chokIriә khe/ 'to the good girl' 
/sປţhyű chokIryű/ 'good girls' /sປţhyປnI chokIryປnI khe/ 'to the good girls'

Ordinals from 1 to 48 inflect according to the followed nouns. Example:
		Dir 					obl
/hIkປ chokIro/ 'one boy' /hIkә chokire khe/ 'to noe boy'
/hIkә chokIri/ 'one girl' /hIkә chokIrә khe/ 'to noe girl'
/bՙә ghәrә/ 'two houses' /bՙInI ghInI ghәrәnI mẽ/ 'in two houses'
/pәրjә kapyű/ 'five note books' /pәրjәnI kapyປnI mẽ/ 'in five note books' 

The ordinals are always used in singular form and one inflected according to the gender and case of the followed noun.

		Dir 					obl 
/sәtõ mәhIno/ '7th month' /sәtẽ mәhIne mẽ/ 'in the 7th month' 
/sәtĩ qәtarә/ '7th line' /sәtiә๊ qәtarә mẽ/ 'in the 7th line'

The multiplicatives are also inflected according to the followed nouns. Examples:

		Dir					obl
/cәűņo kәpIŗo/ 'four fold cloth' /cәűņe kәpIŗe mẽ/ 'in the four fold cloth'
/cәűņI cadәrә/ 'four fold bed sheet' /cәűņİә chadәrә mẽ/ 'in the four fold bed sheet'. 

On the pattern of pronouns the pronominal adjectives are also inflected. Examples:

		Dir 				obl
/hu chokIro/ 'that boy' /ḥປ ә chokire khe/ 'to that boy' 
/әsãjo dostປ/ 'our friend' /әsãje dostә khe/ 'to our friend' 
/ka כrәtә/ 'some woman' /kәhĨ כrәtә khe/ 'to some woman'

When the present and past participles are used as adjectives they are inflected according to the followed nouns. Examples:

Dir.
/hәlәndi bәsI/ 'moving bus' /khປlyәlu dәrປ/ 'opened door'
/khປlyәlә dәri/ әrә/dәryű/. /khປlyәlә/ dәriә/dәrәnI/ 'opened window/doors/'windows'
obl.
/hәlәndiә bәsI mẽ/ 'in the moving bus' /khປlyәlә dәrә vәţI/ 'near the opened door' dәryປnI vәţI/ 'near the opened window/doors/windows'.

2.3.1.3.3.2 Indeclinable adjectives.

All other adjectives are indeclinable. Examples:
Dir: /hošyarປ chokIro/chokIra/ chokIri /chokIryű/ 'clear boy /boys /girl/ girls'
Obl: /hošyasປ chokIre/chokIrәnI/ chokIrIә /chokIryປnI khe/ 'to the clear boy /boys /girl/ girls'

Dir: /pәրjahປ mәrdә/ כrәtű/ 'fifty men/ women'
Obl: /pәրjahປ mәrdәnI/ כrәtປnI khe/ 'to fifty men/ women'

2.3.1.3.4. Degrees of comparision.

Degrees of comparision in Sindhi are generally discussed though the syntactic constructions with the help of postposition /khã/.

There are three degrees of comparision: positive, comparative and superlative.

3.1.3.4.1. Positive degree. 

The positive degree of an adjective is the adjective in its simple form which is used without any comparision; i.e. /sປţho chokIro/ 'a good boy'.

2.3.1.3.4.1 Comparative degree.
The comparative degree of an adjective denotes a higher degree of the quality than the positive and is used when two things or persons are compared; i.e.
/hປnә khã vәḍ̉o/ 'elder than him'

2.3.1.3.4.3. Superlative degree:
The superlative degree of an adjective denotes the highest of the; i.e.
/sәbhIni khã vәḍ̉o/ 'eldest'

In a few cases degree is also express though separate words; i.e.
/sປţho/ 'good', /bәhItәrປ/ 'better' /bәhItәrinປ/ 'best'.

2.3.2. Verbals.
In Sindhi, verbals are a large and open-ended class of stems.

2.3.2.1. Structural Formation of verbal stems.
The Sindhi verbal stems may be monomorphomic or polymorphemic.

2.3.2.1.1. Monomorphemic.
A monomorphemic verbal stems is having only one morpheme which is identical with the verb root; i.e. /әכ-/ '(to) come' and /lIkh-/ '(to) write'.

2.3.2.1.2. Polymorphemic.
A polymorphemic verb stems is a derived or composite verb stem.

2.3.2.1.2.1. Derived verb stems.
They are from neutral verb roots, simple verb stems and other derived verb stems.

2.3.2.1.2.1.1. Verb stems derived from neutral verb roots.
The derived intransitive verb stems are formed by adding the intransitive marker /-k/ to a limited number of neutral verb roots; i.e. /phәŗk/ '(to) flutter' and /ţim-k/ '(to) twinkle' etc. It is worth noting that most of the roots which form the derived intransitive verb stems are onomatopoetic forms.

2.3.2.1.2.1.2. Verb stems derived from simple verb stems:
Generally the derived transitive verb stems are formed from the intransitives by adding /-a/ or /-ar/; or replacing a vowel of the root. Examples:

   Intransitives 		    transitives 
 /gປm-/ '(to) 'visit' 		/gປma-/ '(to) cause to visit'. 
 /ປth-/ '(to) getup' 		/ປthar-/ '(to) raise' 
 /tәr-/ '(to) swim'		/tar-/ '(to) cause to swim' 
 /ghIŗ-/ '(to) enter' 		/gheŗ-/ '(to) cause to enter' 

A number of single causatives are also derived from the simple verb stems. Example:

	Simple verb 		causative 
/likh-/ '(to) write'		/likh-a/ '(to) cause to write' 

2.3.2.1.2.1.3. Verb stems derived form other derived verbs.
Most of the double causatives are derived from the other derived verb stems. Example: /likh-a-ra-/ '(to)'

2.3.2.1.2.2. Composite verb stems.
The composite verb stems may be 'formed by non-verbal + verbal or more than two verbals.

2.3.2.1.2.2.1. Non-verbal = verbal type verb stems.
Noun + verb: /bhakປrປ pa-/ '(to) embrace'  
		  /sәnanປ kәr-/ '(to) bath'
Adjective + verb: /thәdho thIy-/ '(to) get cold' 

2.3.2.1.2.2.2 Verbal + verbal type verb stems.
The composite verbal are also formed by combining two or more verbals. In such formations generally the first element is main verb and remaining element is/are subsidiary verb/s which help/s to modify the main verb. Examples:

	/bhәjՙI vәր/ '(to) run away' 
	/lIkhәndo vәր-/ '(to) go on writing'
	/khaIղປ cah-/ '(to) want to eatt' 
	/hәlyo әր-/ '(to) go away'

2.3.2.2. Finite and non-finite constructions.
On the basis of finiteness, the verbal constructions make two-fold distinction: finite and non-finite.

2.3.2.2.1. Finite.
The finite verbal formation closes a sentence. The structure of a finite verb consists of a verb stems followed by mood, tense and aspect which may also have gender number and person markers to maintain a concord with the subject or object of the sentence.

2.3.2.2.2. Non-finite.
The non-finite verbal forms cannot close a sentence. They occur as the non-finite members of compo verbs. The main types of non-finite verbal forms are discussed below:

2.3.2.2.2.1. Conjunctive.
It is formed by adding /-i/ to v1 or /-e/ to v2. Examples:
v1: /mã әngre żiә mẽ lIkh sәghyປsI/
    'I could write in English'.
v2: /mã әngreżiә mẽ ģalhae sәghyປsI/
    'I could speak in English'.

The same type of construction is also used as the absolutive. 
Example:
Vl: /mã mәրjhәndI ji mani khai lndປsI/ 
'I shall come after having my lunch'. 
/hu pεsa bhәre indo/ 
'He will come after depositing the amount'. 

2.3.2.2.2.2. Infinite. 
It is formed by adding /-1394;ປ/ to the verb. Example: 
/mã bhaປ ḍՙãhű kItabә mokIlәղປ cahyã tho/
'I want to send books to (my) brother'.

The infinite type construction is also used as gerund (verbal noun). Example:
/pәndhປ kәrәղປ sIhәtә laI sປţho ahe/
'Walking is good for health'.

2.3.2.2.2.3. Participles.

There are mainly three types of participles present, past and future.

2.3.2.2.2.3.1. Present participles.
There are two types of present participles; active and passive.

2.3.2.2.2.3.1.1. Present active participle.
It is formed by adding /әnd-/ for v1 or /-İnd/ for v2 to the verb which is followed by gender, number and person marker to show the agreement. Examples:
/mã hIndi sIkhәndປsI/ 'I shall learn Hindi'.
/әsĩ hIndiә mẽ ģalhaindasĩ/ 'we shall speak in Hindi'.

2.3.2.2.2.3.1.2 Present passive participle.
It is formed by adding /-Ij/ to the verb which is followed by number marker to show the agreement. Examples:
/sәbәkປ pәŗhIje tho/ A lesson is read.
/sәbәkә lIkhIjәnI tha/ Lessons are written.

2.3.2.2.2.3.2. Past participle.
The past participle is formed by adding /-y/ to the verb which may be followed by gender number and /or person markers to show the agreement. Examples:
/mã ghәrI vyປsI./ 'I went home'
/hປnә xәtປ mokIlyo ahe/ 'He has sent a letter'
/tәvhã ḍ̉ãhű xәtә mokIya venda/ 'The letter will be sent to you'.

2.3.2.2.2.3.3. Future participles.

There are two types of future participles: active and passive.

2.3.2.2.2.3.3.1 Future active participle.
It is formed adding /-ib/ to the verb which is followed by gender number marker. Examples:
/mã agre vәրIղo ahyã/ 'I (m) am going to visit Agra'.
/műkhe sכ rupәya bhәrI ahInI/ 'I have to deposit one hundred rupees'.

2.3.2.2.2.3.3.2. Future passive participle.
It is formed adding /-Ib/ to the verb which is followed by gender number marker. Examples:
/cI ţhi lIkhIbi/ 'a letter will be written'.
/dәrә kholIba/ 'and doors will be opened'.

The present and future active participles and past participle are also used as verbal adjectives.

Examples: 
/hәlәndi bәsI/ 'running bus' 
/khILIղi chokIri/ 'Laughing girl'
/khປlyo kItabປ/ 'opened book'

2.3.2.3. Main types of verbal.
On the basis of their function in an utterance, the Sindhi verbals may be divided into two groups: copulative and non-copulative.

2.3.2.3.1. Copulative.
A copulative verbal is a non-process type verb. Its function is only to connect the subject and predicate in an utterance and express the tense and agreement. In Sindhi different forms of the verb /hປ-/ '(to) be' are used to construct the copular. These forms are given below:

2.3.2.3.1.1. Present copular: 
	Singular 			plural 
Person 1 m/f:	/ahyã/ 'am'		/ahyű/ 'are'
Person ll m/f:	/ahĩ/ 'are'		/ahyo/ 'are'
Person lll m/f:	/ahe/ 'is' 		/ahini/ 'are'
	There is no gender distinction in the present copular. 

2.3.2.3.1.2. Past copular.
			Singular 				plural
		Male		female 			male 			female 
Person l : /hosI/ 'was'		/hປәsi/ 'was'        /hປasĩ/ 'were' 	/hປyűsĩ/ 'were'
Person ll: /hປẽ/ 'were'		/hປiә๊/ 'were'       /hປa/ 'were' 	/hປyű/ 'were'
Person lll:/ ho/ 'was'		/hປi/ 'was'          /hປa/ 'were' 	/hປyű/ 'were'

The second and third person plural forms are identical in the past copula type construction.

2.3.2.3.1.3 Future copula.
 			Singular 	
		Male				female 
Person l:   /hundusI/'shall be' 	/hundesI/ 'shall be' 
Person ll:  /hundẽ/ 'will be' 		/hundiә๊/ 'will be' 
Person lll: /hundo/ 'will be' 		/hund/ 'will be' 
			Plural 
		Male				female 
Person l:   /hundasĩ/'shall be' 	/hundyűsĩ/ 'shall be' 
Person ll:  /hunda/ 'will be' 		/hundyű/ 'will be' 
Person lll: /hunda/ 'will be' 		/hundyű/ 'will be' 

The second and third person plural formed are identical in the future copula. It is also worth to mention that the gender number and person markers used for the copula are identical with the past copula. Examples:

Present copula: /hu mastәrປ ahe/ 'He is a teacher'.
Past copula: /kalhә әsĩ nәղḍhe ģothә mẽ hປasĩ/ 'Yesterday we were in a small village'.
Future copula: /sປbhaղe әsĩ vәḍ̉e šәhәrә mẽ hundasĩ/ 'Tomorrow we shall be in a big city'.

2.3.2.3.2. Non copulatives.
These are process type verbals. On the basis of the causativeness they may be sub grouped into three classes causative, non-causative and causative.

2.3.2.3.2.1. A causatives.
The verbs which do not have their causative counterparts in the language are called a causative. There are only a few verbals which fall into this class; /әc-/ '(to) come', /vәր-/ '(to) go' and /-cah-/ '(to) want' etc.

2.3.2.3.2.2. Non- causatives.
Basically these verbals are not causatives, but the causative forms can be derived from them. These verbs can be sub-grouped into two classes: Intransitive and intransitive. The intransitives do not give any object. Examples: /mã pәրjẽ bәje ປthando ahyã/ 'I get up at 5'0 clock (in the morning)'
/huә khIle pei/ 'she is laughing'.
The transitive may have the objective/s.
Examples: /mã xәtປ lIkhã tho/ 'I write a letter'.
/to әmbປ khadho/ 'you (sg) ate a mango'.

2.3.2.3.2.3. Causative.
The causative forms are derived from the non- causatives.
Examples: 
Non- causative			causative
/khIl-/ '(to) laugh' 		/khIl-a/ '(to) make to laugh'
/lIkh-/ '(to) write'		/likh-a/ '(to) cause to write'
/kha-/ '(to) eat' 		/kha-ra/ '(to) feed' 
 
The double causatives also can be formed from these verbs. Examples:
Non- causative 			    single causative		     double causative
/pi-/ '(to) drink' 	      /pi-ar/ '(to) cause to drink' 	/pi ara ra/ '(to) cause to 
					  			give for drinking'
/kәr-/ '(to) do' 	     /kәr-a-/ '(to) get done' 		/kәr-a-ra-/'to get done 
					  			through some one' 

2.3.2.3.3. Auxiliary verbals: The auxiliary verbals modify the action expressed by the main verb. They may indicate mood, tense and aspect. They constitute a small class of words. I.e. /hປ-/ '(to) be' and /sәgh-/ '(to) be able' etc.

/huә sIndhi ģalhaindi ahe/ 'she speaks Sindhi' 
/hu aha hປa/ 'They had come'
/mã hIndiә lIkhi sәghәndປsI/ 'I shall be able to write in Hindi'.

In many cases, moods, tenses and aspects are also formed by combining the main verb with various subsidiary verbs (The verbs which themselves can be used as main verbs as well as function as helping verbs. Examples: Main verb: /hu ģothә mẽ rәhәndo ahe/ 'He lives in a village'.
Subsidiary verb: /hu sәbәqປ lIkhi rәhyo ahe/ 'He is writing a lesson'.

2.3.2.3.4. Verbal inflectional categories.
On the basis of their inflection, native Sindhi verbs may be classified into two groups; verb group-one (v1) and verb group two (v2). All the intransitive and passive verb stems fall into v1 category and all derived transitive and causative verbs stems fall into v2 category. The basic transitive verb stems may fall in to v1 to v2. There is no fixed rule to classify these verb stems to group in v1 or v2.

2.3.2.3.4.1. Main verbal patterns.
The main verbal pattern on the basis of mood, tense and aspects are given below.

2.3.2.3.4.1.1. Mood.
Mood indicates the manner of action. There are three types of mood in the language: Imperative, optative and indicative.

2.3.2.3.4.1.1.1 Imperative mood.
In Sindhi the imperative mood is conjugated in two tense present and future. In these constructions the subject in second person occur in direct form and the verb agrees with it. There is no gender distraction in these constructions.

2.3.2.3.4.1.1.1.1. Present imperative.
It has two sets of suffixes which are added to the verb stems according to their verb group 1 or 2.

Examples: 
V1: /tű xәtປ lIkhປ/ 'you (sg) write a letter' 
      /tәvhĩ xәtә lIkho/ 'you (pl) write  letters'.
 
V2: /tű cãhI kaŗhI/ 'you (sg) prepare tea'. 
       /tәvhĩ cãhI kaŗhyo/ 'you (pl) prepare tea'. 

2.3.2.3.4.11.1.2 Future imperative.
There is no V1 and V2 distinction in the future imperative construction. The verb stem takes /-IjI/ for singular second person and /-Ijo/ for plural second person. Examples:
V1 /tű sປbhaղe әcIjI/ 'you (sg) come tomrrow'
/tәvhĩ sumәyә ḍ̉ihű әcIjo/ 'you (pl) come on Monday'.
V2 /tű pәrĩhә๊ kapi ḍ̉ekharIjI/ 'you (sg) show (your) note book day after tomorrow'.
/tәvhĩ jປme ḍ̉ihű pεsa bhgrIjo/ 'you (pl.) deposit the amount on Friday'

2.3.2.3.4.1.1.2. Optative mood.
To form the optative, the following suffix denoting person-number markers to the subject are added to the verb according to the V1 or V2 . There is no distinction of gender in the optative mood.

	V1 						V2  
/mã bՙahIrI vәրã/ 'I may go out'  /mã cãhI kaŗhyã/ 'I may prepare tea'.
/әsĩ gharI vәրű/'we may go home'./әsĩ cãhI kaŗhyű/'we may  prepare tea'  
/tű xәtປlIkhĩ/'you(sg) may write letter'/tű dәrປ kholĩ/'you(sg) may open the door'.
/tәvĩ ປtho/'you(pl) may get up'/tәvhĩdәrә kholyo/ 'you(pl) may open the doors'.
/hu hIte әcә/ 'He may come here' /huә pεsa bhәre/ 'she may deposit the amount'
/hu hIte әcәnI/ 'They may come here' /hu pεsa bhәrinI/ 'They may deposit the amount'

2.3.2.3.4.1.1.3. Indicative mood. Indicative mood has three tenses present, past and future, and three main aspects: Indefinite, continuous and perfect.

2.3.2.3.4.1.1.3.1. Indefinite present tense. It has compound formation; the main verb takes the optative type suffix along tuyű (plf) according to the number-gender of the direct subject. Examples:

	Male 					female 
V1: /mã hIndi sIkhã tho/ 		/mã әxbarә pәŗhã thi/ 
      'I learn Hindi'			'I read a newspaper'. 
    /әsĩ bՙahIrI vәnű tha/ 		/әsĩ klasә mẽ әcű thyű/
    'we go out'				'we come in the class'
     /tű xәtປ lIkhĩ tho/ 		/tű әmbປ khaĩ thi/ 
    'you (sg) write a letter'		'you(sg) eat a mango' 
    /tәvhĩ cãhI pio tha/		/tәvhĩ mIţhai khao thyű./
    'you(pl) drink tea'			'you(pl) eat sweet'
    /hu kItabປ pәŗhe tho/		/huә nәdİә mẽ tәre thi/ 
    'He reads a book' 			'she swims in the river'
    /hu sປvalә pປchәnI tha/		/hu jәvabә ḍՙIyәnI thyű/
    'They ask questions'		'They give answers'.

V2: 		male 				female 
    /mã dәrປ kholyã tho/ 	  	/mã dәri bәndI kәryã thi/
    'I open the door' 	 	 	'I close the window'
    /әsĩ sIndhi ģalhayű tha/ 		/әsĩ cãhI khŗhyű thyű/
    /tű hIndi paŗhi tho/ 		/tű phປlko pәcaĩ thi/ 
    'you(sg) teach Hindi'   		'you(sg) prepare chapati'
    /tәvhĩ kIrketi randi kәryo tha/ 	/tәvhĩ gitә ģayo thyű./
    'you (pl) play cricket' 		'you (ol) sing songs'
    /hu pεsa bhәre tho/ 		/huә kItabә aղe thi/ 
    'He pays the amount'		'she brings books'
    /hu sukhIŗI mokIlinI tha/ 		/hu randika dՙekharinI thyű/ 
    'They send a gift'			'they show toys'

In the interrogative or negative indefinite the auxiliary verb occurs before the main verb. Examples:

/tű cha tho kәrĩ/ 		/hu nә tho ģalhae/
'what do you do' 		'He does not speak'.

2.3.2.3.4.1.1.3.2. Continuous present tense. The pattern of continuous present is identical with the indefinite present and only the auxiliary verb tho/ tha/thi/thyű is replaced by /pyo /pya /pei / peyű/ respectively. Examples:

	Male 				female
/mã kItabປ pәŗhã pyo/ 			/mã akhaղi likhã pei/
'I am reading a book' 			'I am writing a story'
/tәvhĩ cha pya kәryo/			/әsĩ ghәrI vәրű peyű/
'what are you (pl) doing'		'we are going home'

2.3.2.3.4.1.1.3.3. Indefinite past tense.
At the syntactic level the past tense type constructions can be divided into two types: Intransitive and transitive. The indefinite past is formed by adding the past participle marker /-y/ to the verb. The intransitive verb agrees with the subject (direct case) and takes its gender-number and person marker similar to past copula (the). The transitive verb takes gender-number marker of the direct object and subject occurs in the oblique form without any postposition. No auxiliary verb is used in the indefinite past. All the suffixes are added to the verb only. There is no distinction of V1 and V2 in there constructions. Examples: Intransitive verb:

		Male 					Female
/mã ayປsI/ 'I came' 				/mã ayәsI/ 'I came'
/әsĩ ayasĩ/ 'we came'				/әsĩ ayũsĩ/ 'we came'
/tũ mປmbәI ghປmIẽ/ 'you (sg) 			/tũ mປmbәĩ gປmiә๊/ 'you (sg)
visited Mumbai' 				visited Mumbai' 
/tәvhĩ derIsã aya/ 'you (pl) 			/tevhĩ derIsã ayũ/ 'you (pl) came 
came late'					 late'	
/hu desI sã ປthyo/ 'He got up late'		/huә derIsã ປthi/ 'she got up late'
/hu kalhә aya/ 'They came 		 	/hu kalhә ayũ/ 'They came yesterday'.
	   yesterday'

Transitive verb:
	Male 				   female 
/mũ sәbәqປ likhyo/ 			/to akhaղi pәŗhi/ 
'I wrote a lesson' 			'you (sg) read a story'
/chokire xәtә mokIlya/ 			/chokIryປnI kapyũ ḍՙInyũ/ 
'The boy sent letters' 			'The girls gave notebooks'. 

When the direct object is absent or not known in contact, the verb is used in neutral form and takes the third person singular marker. Examples: /to cha likayo/ 'what did you (sg) hide?'
/hປnә cәyo/ 'He said'

2.3.2.3.4.1.1.3.4. Continuous past tense.
The auxiliary verb /pIe/ is used with the indefinite past type construction to form the past tense. Examples:

/mã ayປsI pIe/ 'I (m) was a coming'.
/chokIryũ ḍoŗyũ pIe/ 'The girls were running'.
/to dәrປ kholyo pIe/ 'you (sg) were opening the door'.
/šagIrdәnI sәbәqປ lIkhyo pIe/ 
'The students were writing a lesson'.

In the interrogative negative type sentences, generally the auxiliary verb occur before the main verb. Examples: /to cha pIe kәyo/ 'what was you doing?'
/hປnә konә pIe lIkhyo/ 'He was not writing?'

2.3.2.3.4.1.1.3.5. Indefinite future tense.
The formatting of indefinite future is identical with the indefinite past (Intransitive except the past participle /-y/ is replaced by the present participle /-әnd/ for V2: or /ind/ for V2. There is no distinction between intransitive and transitive verbs in the future constructions. Examples:

V1:  	male 					female
/mã sIndhi sIkhәndປsI/ 			/mã hIndi sIkhәndәsI/
'I shall learn Sindhi'			'I shall learn Hindhi'
/әsĩ puno ghປmәndasĩ/ 				/әsĩ dehli ghປmәndyũsĩ/
'we shall visit pune'			'we shall visit Dilhi'
/tũ hIte rәhәndẽ/			/tũ hປte rәhәndiә๊/
'you (sg) will stay here'		'you (sg) will stay there'			
/tәvhĩ vәqtә te pәhປchәnda/		/tәvhĩ derI sã pәhປchәndyũ/
'you (pl) will reach in time'		'you (pl) will reach in late'
/hu әsã sã hәlәndo/ 			/huә әsã sã hәlәndi/ 	 
'He will come with us' 			'she will come with us'
/hu hune je bare mẽ bՙປdhainda/		/hũ ghәղa sປvalә pປchәndyũ/
'They will inform about him'		'They will ask many questions'.

V1: /mã hປnәnI sã ģalhaindປsI/ 'I(m) shall speak with them'
     /әsĩ kItabә mokIlİndyũ sĩ/ 'we (f) shall send the books'.

2.3.2.3.4.1.1.3.6. Continuous future tense. The auxiliary verb /pyo/ (m. sg), /pya/ (m.pl), /pei/ (f. sg) or /peyũ is used with the indefinite future type construction to express the continuous future tense. Examples:

	Male				        female
/mã lIkhәndປsI pyo/		 		/mã pәŗhәndәsI pei/ 
'I shall be writing' 				'I shall be reading'
/әsĩ panә mẽ ģalhaindasĩ pya/ 			/tәvhĩ git ģaindyũ peyũ/ 
'we shall be speaking with each other' 		'you will be singing a song' 

2.3.2.3.4.1.1.3.7. Present /past /future perfect tense.
For the formatting of perfect tense the main verb takes the past participle marker /-y/ which is followed by the gender-number marker of the direct subject (if the verb is transitive or the direct object) . In the case of transitive verb the subject is used in the oblique form without any postposition. The different forms of the verb /hປ-/ (to) are used as the auxiliary verb according to the tense. Examples.

Intransitive verb:
		Male				female
/mã vyo ahyã/ hosI/ hundປsI/    	/mã ai ahya/  hປәsI/ hundәsI/  
'I have /had /shall have gone'   	'I have /had /shall have come'
/әsĩ vya ahyũ hປasĩ /hundasĩ/  	 	/әsĩ ayũ ahyũ/ hປhyũ sĩ /hປndyũsĩ/
'we have /had /shall have gone' 	'we have /had /shall have come'
/tũ vyo ahĩ /hປẽ/ hundẽ/  	   	/tũ ai ahĩ /hປiә๊/ hundiә๊/
'you(sg) have/had/will have gone' 	 'you(sg) have/had/will have come'
/tәvhĩvya ahyo/ hປa/hunda/	    	/tәvhĩ ayũ ahyo/hປyũ/hundyũ/
'you(pl) have/had/will have gone' 	'you(pl) have/had/will have come'     
/hu pәhປto ahe /ho /hundo/ 	    	/huә pәhປti ahe /hປi/hundi/ 
'He has /had /will have reached'  	'she has /had /will have reached'  
/hu pәhປta ahInI /hປa/ hunda/  		/hu pәhປtyũ ahInI/ hປyũ/hundyũ/
'They have /had/will have reached'  	'They have /had/will have reached'

Transitive verb: 
/to kәmປ puro kәyo ahe /ho/ hundo/ 
'you (sg) have /had/ will have completed the work' 
/hປnә pεsa mokIlya ahInI /hປa/ hunda/  
'he has /have/will have sent the money' 
/radha sukhIŗI mokIli ahe /hປi /hundi/ 
'Radha has /had/ will have sent a gift'.
/šagrIdәnI akhaղyũ pәŗhyũ ahInI /hປyũ/ hundyũ/
'The students have /had /will have read the stories'.

The future perfect type pattern is also used to express the perfect dubitative. Examples: /huә gәrI pәhປti hundi/ 'she might have reached home'.
/tәvhã Iho kItabປ pәŗhyo hundo/ 'you (pl) might have read this book'.

2.3.2.3.4.1.2. Some other patterns:
The formation of some other common patterns is given below.

2.3.2.3.4.1.2.1 Habitual present /past /future tense:
The formation of habitual tenses is identical to the perfect intransitive type pattern except the past participle marker /-y/ is replaced by the present participle marker /-әnd/ for V1 and /-ind/ for V2. There is no distinction between transitive and intransitive verbs. Examples:

V1: /mã pәրjẽ bәje ປthәndo ahyã /hosI /hundປsI/
      I (m) get up /used to get up /shall be getting up at 5'o clock.
     /tәvhĩ sIndhi sIkhәnda ahyo/ hປa/ hunda/
     'you (m.pl.) learn/ used to learn /will be learning Sindhi' 
     /hũә mປmbәiә kha indi ahe /hປi/ hundi/
     'she comes /used to come /will be coming from Mumbai'    
    /hu kәpIŗa sIbgndyũ ahInI /hປyũ /hundyũ/ 
    They (f) stitch /used to stitch/ will be stitching clothes.

V2: /hu sປţha naţәkә dՙekarindo ahe /ho/ hundo/ 
     'He shows /used to show /will be showing good dramas'. 
     /tәvhĩ әngrezi sekharinda ahyo/ hປa/ hunda/ 
     'you (pl.m.) teach /used to teach/ will be teaching English'.
     /huә sIndhi girә ģaindi ahe /hປi /hundi/ 
     'she sings /used to sing /will be singing Sindhi songs'. 
    /hu lokә kәthaũ bՙປdhaindyũ ahInI /hປyũ /hundyũ/
    They (f) narrate /used to narrate /will be narrating folk tales.

The future habitual type pattern is also used to express the present dubitative. Example: /tũ socindo hundẽ/ 'you (m sg) might be thinking'.

2.3.2.3.4.2.2. Potential present /past/future tense. For the formation of present potential the main verb takes the conjunctive /-i/ for V1: or /-e/ for V2 and the auxiliary verb /sәgh-/ '(to) be able' takes person-number marker followed by the auxiliary verb tho/ tha /thi/ or thyu/ used for the indefinite present. Examples:

V1: /mã tәri sәghã tho/  'I (m) can swim'. 
     /әsi tәvã sã hәli sәghũ tha/ 'we (m) can come with you'.
     /tũ miţhai khai sәghi thi/ 'you (sg.f) can eat sweet'. 
    /tәvhĩ gәrI vәրi sәgho thyũ/ 'you (pl.f.) cango home'. 

V2: /huә әngreji sekhare sәghe thi/ 'she can teach English'. 
      /hu asã khe bՙປdhae sәghәnI tha/ 'They can tell us'. 

For the potential past or future also the main verb takes /-i/ or /-e/ and the auxiliary verb lakes all the markers similar to the indefinite (intr) and future patterns. Examples:

(1) potential  past: 
     /mã vәqtә te pәhປci sәghyປsi/ 'I (m) could reach in time'.
     /huә karI hәlae sәghi/ 'she could drive car'.
(2) Potential future:
     /әsĩ taj mәhәlປ ḍՙIsi sәghәndasĩ/ 
     'we (m) shall be able to see the Tajmahal'. 
     /tũ hປnәnI khe paŗhe sәghәndiә๊/
     'you (sg f) will be able to teach them'. 

2.3.2.3.4.2.3. Conditional present /past /future.
The conditional sentences are formed by conditional connectors /je-tә/ 'if than'. The present conditional is formed with the help of the optative pattern. Examples: /je hu pәŗhe tә mã likhã/ 'if he reads I shall write'.

The past conditional is also formed with the help of the optative type pattern which is followed by the auxiliary verb /hã/.
Example: /je hu ace hã tә әsĩ xປshI thyũ hã/ 'If he had come, we would have felt happy'.

The future conditional is expressed by combining two simple future tense type sentences with the help of the conditional connectors.
Examples: /huә indi tә mã xປšI thindປsI/ If he comes I shallfeel happy.

2.3.2.3.4.2.4. Prospective present /past/ future:
The prospective pattern is formed by adding the futurative participle /-Iղ/ suffixed by gender-number marker to the main verb which is followed by the auxiliary verb identical with the copula to show the tense agreement.

(i) Intransitive verb: For the formation of intransitive prospective, the subject is used in the direct form and verb agrees with it. Examples:
/mã dehIliә vәրiղi ahyã/ hປәsI/ hundәsi/ 'I (f) am/ was/ shall be going to visit Delhi'.

(ii) Transitive verb: If the verb is transitive, the subject is used in the oblique form followed by the postposition /khe/ and the verb agrees with the direct object. Examples: /hປnә khe kປrsi vәţhIղi ahe/ hui/ hundi/ 'He has/ had/ would have to purchase a chair'. The above transitive pattern is also used for the obligatory construction.

In the case of the intransitive verb the subject is in the oblique form followed by the postposition /khe/ and verb is used in the neutral form which is identical with the masculine singular third person pattern. Examples: /әsã khe dehIliә vәրIղo ahe/ ho/ hundo/ 'we have /had/ should have to go to Delhi'.

2.3.2.3.4.2.5. Suggestives. For the formation of suggestive constructions the subject is used in the oblique form followed by the postposition /khe/ and the main verb is used in the infinitive form which is followed by the auxiliary verb /khәp-/ '(to) want' in the singular or plural form according the direct object. Examples: /tәvhã khe Iho kItabປ pәŗhәղປ khәpe/ 'you (pl) should read this book'.
/hປnә khe sכ rupәya jәma kәtaIղປ khәpәnI/ 'he should deposite one hundred rupees'.

The intransitive verb instruction is formed in the neutral pattern. Examples: /tәvhã khe pәրjẽ bәjae ປthәղປ khәpe/ 'you (pl) shouls get up at 5 o'clock'.

2.3.2.3.4.3 Voices.
Sindhi has two voices: active and passive the active voice indicates that subject does something or becoming something and the passive voice represents the subject as acted upon. The act voice has three types of construction: subjectival, objectival and neutral. Examples:

   (l) Subjectival: /mã әxbarә pәŗhã tho/ 'I read a newspaper'. 
   (ll) Objectival: /to chokIri ḍՙIţhi/ 'you (sg) saw the girl'. 
   (lll) Neutral: /mũ cәyo/ 'I said'.

But the passive voice has two types of constructions: objectival and impersonal. The main type of passive constructions are given below:

(l) Suggestive passive: The suggestive passive is formed with the help of the passive marker /-Ij/ which is followed by the number marker.

       (i) Objectival (tr verb):
          /kItabປ jәma kәraIje/ 'The book should be submitted'.
          /kapyũ jәma kәraIJәnI/ 'The note books should be submitted'.

       (ii) Impersonal (intr verb): 
          /sປbປhә jo sәverә ປthIje/ 
  	'one should get up early in the morning'.
         In the suggestive passive type constructions, usually the subject is    
         absent. 

(2) Indefinite present passive.
For the indefinite present passive the main verb takes same markers which are used for the suggestive passive along with the auxiliary verb /tho/ (m.sg) /tha/ (mpl), /thi/ (f.sg) or /thyũ/ (f.pl) according to the gender and number of the objects. Examples:

    (i) Objectival: (tr verb) 
      /xәtປ mokIlije tho/ 'A letter is sent'.
      /xәtә mokIljәnI tha/ 'The letters are sent'.
      /dәrxvastә mokIlIje thi/ 'An application is sent'.  
      /dәrxvastũ mokIlIjәnI thyũ/ 'The applications are sent'.  
    (ii) Impersonal (intr verb):
     /sәverә ປţhIje tho/ 'one gets up early (in the morning)' 

In Sindhi the indefinite passive is also expressed by compound verb. The main verb is used in the past participle form and the subsidiary verb /vәր-/ '(to) go' which is followed by /tho/, /tha/, /thi/ or /thyũ/. In such construction transitive verb agrees with the object and has neutral pattern. Examples:

     (i) Objectival (tr verb): 
        /xәtປ likhyo vәրe tho/ 'A letter is written'.
        /kItabә mokIlya vәրәnI tha/ 'The books are sent'.
        /әxbarә pәŗhi vәրe thi/ 'The newspaper is read'.
        /kapyũ ḍՙinyũ vәրәրI thyũ/ 'Note books are given'.
    (ii) Impersonal (intr verb):
       /mũ khã hәlyo nә tho vәրe/ 
	   'I cannot walk (lit. It cannot be, walked by me)'. 

(3) Indefinite past passive: It has the similar compound verb type pattern used for the indefinite present except the subsidiary verb/ vәր/ is used in the past form. Examples:

     (1) Objectival (tr verb): 
        /kItabປ mokIlyo vyo/ 'A books was sent'. 
        /kItabә mokIlya vya/ 'The books were sent'.   
        /kapi mokIli vei/ 'A note book was sent'.
        /kapyũ mokIlyũ veyũ/ 'The note books were sent'.

    (ii) Impersonal (Intr verb):
     /әsã khã khIlyo nә vyo/ 'we could not laugh (lit.
	 It could not be laughed by us)'.

(4) Indefinite future passive: It is formed by the future passive participle /-Ib/ which is followed by the gender number marker. Examples

     (i) Objectival (tr verb): 
         /әmbປ khabo/ 'A mango will be eaten'. 
         /әmbә khaIba/ 'Mangoes will be eaten'. 
         /narәngi  khaIbi/ 'An orange will be eaten'.
         /narәngyũ khaIbyũ/ 'Oranges will be eaten'.

     (ii) /mປmbәiә hәlIbo/ 'Mumbai will be visited'. 

Like indefinite present the indefinite feline is also expressed with the help of the subsidiary verb /vәր/ '(to) go'. Examples:

       /xәtປ mokilyo vәndo/ 'A letter will be sent'. 
       /mũ khã hәlyo nә vendo/ 'It will not be possible for me to walk'.

(5) Habitual present /past/ future passive: It is formed with the help of future passive participle which is followed by the different forms of auxiliary verb /hປ-/ '(to) be' to show the tense and agreement.
(i) Objectival (tr verb):

/sIndhi gitປ ģaIbo ahe/ ho/ hundo/ 'A Sindhi song is/was/ will be sung'. /sufә khaIba ahInI/ hປa/ hunda/ 'Apples are/were/ will be eaten'. /mIţhai aղIbi ahe/ hປi/ hundi/ 'sweet is/was/ will be brought'.
/karũ hәlaIbyũ ahInI/ hປyũ/ hundyũ/ 'Cars are /were/ will be driven'.

(ii) Impersonal (Intr verb):
/sәverә ປthIbo ahe/ ho/ hundo/ 'one gets up /got up/ will getup early (in the morning)'.

It is worth to mention that the /-Ib/ type construction is always used in the predicative sentences. In other words it is not possible to use any subject in such pattern.
The habitual passive also can be formed with the help of the subsidiary verb /vәր-/ '(to) go'. Examples:
/sindhi gitә gaya venda ahInI /hປa/ hunda/ 'Sindhi songs are /were/ will being sung'. /mIţhayũ vIrhayũ vәndyũ ahinI /hປyũ/ hundyũ/ 'Sweets are /were/ will being distributed'.

2.3.3. Adjuncts.
Adjuncts are a class of words which are amplifying part of a sentence. They generally do not enter into the morphological constructions. Its five main groups are: adverbs, particles, postposition, conjunction and interjections.

2.3.3.1 Adverbs: They restrict the signification of verbs modifying them. They also qualify another adverbs.
2.3.3.1.1 Main types of adverbs: semantically the Sindhi adverbs can be classified into five groups: temporal adverbs, locational adverbs, directional adverbs, adverbs of manner and adverbs of degree.

2.3.3.1.1.1 Temporal adverbs: These indicate the time of action. Examples:
/әj̉ປ/ 'today', /kәḍ̉әhĩ/ 'when', /haղe/ 'now' and /rozປ/ 'daily'. Etc.

2.3.3.1.1.2 Locational adverbs: These indicate the place of action. Examples:
/kIthe/ 'where', /hIte/ 'here', /hປte/'there' /vejho/ 'near' and /pәre/ 'away' etc.

2.3.3.1.1.3 Directional adverbs: These indicate the direction of action. Examples:
/keḍ̉ãhũ/ 'where in which direction', /heḍ̉ãhũ/ 'here, in this direction' and /hoḍ̉ãhũ/ 'there, in that direction' etc.

2.3.3.1.1.4. Adverbs of manner: these indicate the manner of action. Examples:
/kiә๊/ 'how' /hiә๊/ 'in this manner, like this' and
/huә๊/ 'in that manner, like that' etc.

2.3.3.1.1.5 Adverbs of degree: These indicate the degree of action. Examples:
/ghәղo/ 'much a lot'.
/ḍ̉aḍhyã/ 'loudly' and
/horyã/ 'slowly' /tәkiŗo/ 'fast' etc.

2.3.3.1.2. Structural formation of adverbs: The Sindhi adverbs are monomorphemic or polymorphemic.

2.3.3.1.2.1. Monomorphemic adverbs: Simple adverbs are monomorphemic. Examples:
/heţhI/ 'down', /mәthe/ 'up', /әj̉ປ/ 'today' /kalhә/ 'yesterday', /әրa/ 'still', yet etc.

2.3.3.1.2.2 Polymorphemic adverbs: These are formed from nouns, pronouns, adjectives verbs and adverbs etc. with the help of derivation, composition and reduplication.

2.3.3.1.2.1.2.1 Derived adverbs: These are derived from nouns, pronouns, adjectives and adverbs with the help of different affixes.
(i) From nouns: these are derived by (a) prefixing or (b) suffixing the nouns. Examples:

   (a) /bešәkI/ 'certainly' 
       /bevәqto/ 'untimely'
       /baqaide/ 'orderly'. 

   (b) /nәtijәnI/ 'consequently' 
        /qanunәnI/ 'legally'. 

(ii) From Pronouns: bulks of adverbs are derived from the pronouns. The formation of these adverbs is given in the following chart.

 (iii) From adjectives:
      /bՙihәrә/ 'second time', /tihәrә/ 'third time'
 
 (iv) From adverbs:
      /kIthe/ 'where' -> /kIthã/ 'from where'
      /hIte/ 'here' -> /hItã/ 'from here'
     /hປte/ 'there' -> /hປtã/ 'from there'
     /әndәrI/ 'in' -> /әndIrã/ 'from inside'
     /bՙahIrI/ 'out' -> /bՙahIrã/ 'from out side'
     /heţhI/ 'down' -> /hәţhã/ 'under'
     /pәre/ 'away' -> /pәryã/ 'from a distance'.

3.1.2.1.3.2 compound adverbs: The following types of compound adverbs can be formed in the language.

     (i) noun + noun -> adverb: 
	/ratI ḍՙĩhә๊/ 'day and night, always' 
	/mәŋgәl ḍՙĩhű/ 'on Tuesday' 
	
	noun + verb -> adverb 
	/ḍՙĩhә๊ ḍՙIţhe/ 'in the day light, openly'. 
	
	Noun + postposition -> adverb:
	/ratI jo/ 'at night' 
	/vәqtә te/ 'in time'
	/sәvәlaiә sã/ 'easily'

      (ii) Pronoun + pronoun -> adverb: 
	/pәnhInjo paղә/ 'automatically' 
      
      (iii) Adjective + noun -> adverb:
	 /YәkdәmI/ 'all of sudden' /hIkә varI/ 'once'

	Adjective + adjective -> adverb: 
	/thoro ghәղo/ 'more or less' 		
	
	Adjective + adverb -> adverb:
	 /cכtәrfI/ 'in all sides, every where'
	
	Adjective + postposition -> adverb: 
	/әtIre mẽ/ 'mean while'

      (iv) Participle + Participle -> adverb: 
	 /ປthande vIhәnde/ 'always'
	 
	 Participle + participle:
	/dՙIsәnde i / 'as soon as (it is seen)'
      
      (v) Adverb + adverb -> adverb 
	/hIte hປte/ 'here and there' 
	/jIte tIte/ 'every where'
	/әjՙປ kәlhә/ 'now a days' 

	Adverb + particle -> adverb
	/kәdՙәhĨ bI / 'any time'

	Adverb + postposition -> adverb 
		/derI sã/ 'lately' 
		/kәdՙәhĨ khã/ 'how long'
		/jesi taĩ/ 'until'
		/jәḍՙәhĩ bI/ 'when ever' 
		/haղe i / 'just now'


3.1.2.1.3.3 Reduplicated adverbs. 
      (i) Both  the elements having the same phonemic shape. Examples:
	/horyã horyã/ 'showly' 
	/kә ḍՙәhĨ kәḍՙәhĨ/ 'some times' 
	/vәri vәri/ 'again and again, repeatedly'. 

      (ii) Both of the elements are same having some other form in between. Example: 
	/haղe jo haղe/ 'at this very moment, immediately'
	/xປdI bә xປdI/ 'automatically' 
	/kIthe nә kIthe/ 'some were'.

It is worth to mention that many adjectives are also used as adverbs in the language. Examples:
/huә sປţho ģaihdi ahe/ 'she sings well'.

/pәhIrĩ tәvhĩ pәnhInjo kәmປ puro kәryo/ 
'First you complete your work'. 
/hu ghәղo khIlyo/ 'He languaged a lot'.
/huә thoro mປški/ 'she smiled a little'.

2.3.3.2 Particles.
Beside the verb modifying adverbs which usually precede the forms which they modify, there are a number of adverbial words of a subsidiary nature which are used for denoting affirmation, negation, emphasis, contrast etc. These are called particles. They can be attached to any word in a sentence. The common Sindhi particles are given below:
(i) /ha/ 'yes' it is used for an affirmative expression. The affirmation can also be expressed by other words as. /zәrurປ/ 'surely' /pәkә/ 'definitely' and /cho nә/ 'way not' etc.

(ii) /nә/ 'no,not' It is used for negation the negative forms /konә/ /kanә/ and /kinә/ are also used in the language
/nәko/ is used in the complex sentences
/nәko hu lIkhe tho nәko pәŗhe tho/
'Neither he writes nor reads'.
/nә tә/ is used as an emphatic negative reply denoting surprise or disapproval. Examples:
/cha to hInji kapi khәĩ ahe/ 'Have you taken my note book?'
/nәtә/ 'oh no!, no indeed!'
/nә/ is also used as the final word in an interogative sentence to denote an emphatic affirmation. Example:
/tű әsã sã hәlәndẽ ne/ 'you (sg m) will come with us, won't you?'.

The affirmative /ha/ and negative /nә/ are also used as nouns in the language. Examples:
/mű ha kәi/ 'I accepted (lit. I said; yes)'.
/to nә cho kәi/ 'way did you refuse (lit. way did you said; No)'

(iii) The emphatic forms /rປģo/, /sIrfປ/ and 
     /fәqtI/ are having the meaning of 'only' 
     /műkhe rປģo/ sIrfປ/ fәqtI sכ rປpәya khәpәnI/ 
     'I need only one hundred rupees'.

(iv) The form /i/ is used for emphasis or gives the meaning of 'alone' only. Examples:

/pune khã riţa i ai ahe/ 'Rite alone has come from pune'. 
/hປnә khe hIkә i kapi khәpe/ 'He wants only one note book'.
It also gives the meaning of 'even'.
/huә hIte ai i kanhe/ 'she did not even come here'.

(v) The form /bI/ gives the meaning of 'also'. Examples:
/әsã sã raju bI hәlәndo/ 'Raju will also come with us'.
It is also used with other forms to add the meaning of 'any'. Examples:
/kປjhປ bI/ 'any thing' /kobI/ 'any one',
/kәd̉әhĨ bI/ any time and /kiә๊ bI/ 'any how' etc.

(vi) The particle /tә/ denotes emphasis or contrast. Examples:  
	    /tű hItã vәրປ tә/ 'Atleast you go from here'.
	
	The form /tә/ is also used to show contrast in the complex sentences (see……………) 
 
(vii) The particle /sәhi/ is used to emphasis an action. Examples: 
	/huә әcetә sәhi mã hປnә sã ģalhaindປsI/
	'Let her come (emphasis); 'I shall talk to her'.

2.3.3.3. Postposition.
The postposition in Sindhi may be considered as a special class of particles which denote a certain relationship between the governing noun or pronoun (which aways occurs in the oblique form and in other parts of speech associated with them). They are functional words which are used to show the grammatical relations. They always occur after a noun, pronoun or any other word. Therefore they are called postpositions. Most of the postpositions are indeclinables except /jo/ 'of'. On the basis of their grammatical funtion all the postpositions in Sindhi are classified into two groups, used as case signs and used to form other compounds.

2.3.3.3.1. Postposition used as case signs.
The main postpositions used as case signs along with their main semantic functions are given below.

/khe/ It is used to express the accusative case. It occurs with the secondary object which is usually animate. Example:
/mű pәnhIրje dostә khe xәtປ lIkhyo/ 'I wrote a letter to my friend'.

The inanimate main objects do not take any postposition in the accusative case. Examples:

	/ramә sәbәqປ lIkhyo/ 'Ram wrote a lesson'. 
	/mã әxbarә pәŗhã tho/ 'I read a newspaper'.

	The postposition /khe/ is also used with subject in the following conditions: 

	(i) To express the blood relations; i.e. 
	/hປnә khe bՙә pປţә әhInI/ 'He has two sons'. 

(ii) When the verb is used in the infinite or futinative form. Examples: /to khe vәրәղປ khәpe/ 'you (sg) should go'.

/mű khe mປmbәiә vәրIղo ahe/ 'I have to go to Mumbai'.

(iii) It is also used with some transitive verbs in their perfective forms. Examples:
/hປnә khe Inamປ mIlyo/ 'He received a prize'.

	(iv) When the subject is used as experiences. Examples: 
	/gopalә khe bປxarປ ahe/ 'Gopal is suffering from fever'.
	/műkhe hIndi indi ahe/ 'I know Hindi'.

It is worth to mention that in Sindhi when the subject is used in the nominative case with a transitive verb in the perfective form, it is used in the oblique form but does not take any postposition. Example:
/mű akhaղi lIkhi/ 'I wrote a story'.
/chokIriә gitປ ģato/ 'The girl sang a song'.
/khã/: It is used in the following situations

(i) From a person:
/tәvhĩ mastәrә khã kItabә vәţho/ 'you (pl) take the books from the teacher'.
(ii) Starting point of a place:
/mປmbәI pune khã kәtIro pәre ahe/ 'How far is Mumbai from Pune'.
(iii) Starting time:
/әsã jo klasປ ḍ̉әhẽ bәte khã pәրjẽ bәje taĩ ahe/ 'our class is from 10 o'clock' to 5 o'clock'.
(iv) Duration with reference to a continuous action.
/huә b̉InI salәnI khã dehIliә mẽ ahe/ 'She has been in Delhi for two years'.
(v) comparision:
/raju gopalә khã nәղḍho ahe/ 'Raju is youngher than Gopal'.

(vi) with the subject of a verb in the passive or impersonal voice.
/mű khã sәbәqປ pәŗhyo nәtho vәրe/ 'I am unable to read the lesson'. /hປnә khã hәlyo nә tho vәրe/ 'He is unable to walk'.

/vәţi/ It expresses the proximity of location 'near' belongingness. I.e. 'has/have'. Examples:
/bhItI vәţI kປrsi rәkhປ/ 'Keep the chair near the wall'.
/mű vәţI ghәղa sປţha kItabә ahInI/ 'I have many good books'.

/vәtã/ It is used to give the meaning of or from a proximate location. Example:
/d/ It is used to give the meaning of or from a proximate location. Example:
/dәrә vәţã kປrsI khәղປ/ 'Take the chair from the door'.

/te/ It denotes location or position on or upon or at some thing. Examples:
/mεzә te kapyű rәkho/ 'Put the note books on the table'.

	
It is also used to express the point of time at which action takes place.
Example:
	/mã vәqtә te pәhປtປsI/ 'I reached at the right time'.

/tã/ It gives the meaning of 'from a surface'
 Examples: 
	/hu kItabә mεzә tã khәղປ/ 'Take those books from the table'.

/mẽ/ It gives the meaning of 'in'. Examples: 
	/hປnә kәmIre mẽ kerປ ahe/ 'who is in the room'. 
	/ģo thIriә mẽ kItabә vijhປ/ 
	'put the books in the bag'.

/mã/ It gives the meaning of 'from inside'. Examples:
/ģo thIriә mã kapyű kәḍhປ/
 'Take out the note books from the bag'.

/sã/ It is used for the following expressions: 
	(i) Instrument:
	/chປriә sã sufປ kәpI/ 'cut the apple with the knife'.
	(ii) Manner:
	/dhyanә sã bՙປdho/ 'Listen with attention (carefully)'.
	(iii) Association: 
	/huә műsã mIli/ 'she met me'.
	(iv) Along with:

/cha tű műsã dehIliә hәlәndẽ/ 'will you (m sg) come with me to Delhi' in this type of constructions /sanu/ is also used to give the meaning of 'along with'

	/asã saղປ radha bI hәlәndi/ 'Radha will also come with us'. 

/laI/ It gives the meaning of 'for'. Examples: 

/hປnә pәnhIրje zalә laI rešImi saŗhi xәridә kәi/ 'He purchased a silk sari for his wife'.

/ḍՙãhű/ It gives the meaning of 'at, towards'. Examples:
	/borḍә ḍՙãhű ḍՙIso/ 'Look at the board'. 

/taĨ/ It gives the meaning of 'upto'. 

/kalhә/ mű sәtẽ baje taĩ hປnә jo Intizarປ kәyo pIe/ 'I was waiting for you till 7 o'clock'.

	/mã bՙປdhәrә taĩ mokәlә te ahyã/ 'up to wednesday I am on leave'.
	/hປә afİsә taĩ әsã sã ai/ 'she came with us up to the office'.

/jp/ It is used for the genitive constructions to indicate possession or association with the followed noun. It is inflected according to the following noun. Examples:

       (i) /әsã jo kItabປ/ 'our book' 
	/әsã ja kItabә/ 'our books'
	/әsã ji kapi/ 'our note books' 
	/әsã jű kapyű/ 'our note books' 
	/әsã je kItabә mẽ/ 'our note book'.

     (ii) radha jo bhaປ/ 'Radha's brother'  
	radha ji bheղә/ 'Radha's sister'
	radha je bhaປ jo dostປ/ 'Radha's brother's friend'.

2.3.3.3.2 Postpositions used to form other phrases.
The postpositions are also used to form different types of phrases in the language. Some types of phrases are gives below:

	(i) noun + postposition + noun -> noun- phrase
	/hປnә khe rປģo kәmә sã kәmປ ahe/ 
	
	(ii) noun + postposition + adjective -> adjectival- phrase
	/thәmbhe khã ḍIgho/ 'taller than a pole, very tall'.

	(iii) noun + postposition -> adverbial- phrase:
	/ratI jo/ 'at night'
	/sປbປhә jo/ 'in the morning'

(iv) adjective + postposition + adjective -> adjectival- phrase. /hປnә vәţI vәdI mẽ vәdI sכ rປpәya hűnda/ 'He might be having not more than hundred rupees'.

	(v) adverb + postposition  -> adverbial phrase.
	/derI sã/ 'late' 
	/sປbhaղe khã/ 'from tomorrow'

2.3.3.4. Conjunctions.
Conjunctions connect two or more than two words, phrases or sentences in an utterane. They are indeclinable in the language. Structinally these are simple forms, compounds or phrasal pairs. Examples: /chokIra ε๊ chokIryű/ 'boys and girls' /naղḍhe ģoţhә mẽ yo vәḍ̉e šәhәrә mẽ/ 'In a small village or big city' /әj̉ປ fi bhәrI nәtә tokhe ḍ̉әղdປ bhәrIղo pәvәndo/ 'Deposite the fee other wise you have to pay the fine'. /nәko huә pәŗhe thi nәko lIkhe thi/ 'Neither she reads nor writes'.

2.3.3.4.1 Main types of conjunctions.
At the syntactic level there are two types of conjunctions in the language: coordinate conjunctions and subordinate conjunctions.

2.3.3.4.1.1. Coordinate conjunctions. 

The conjunctions joining two mutually independent sentences are called coordinate conjunctions. The main coordinate conjunctions are given below:
(i) Cumulative: It merely adds one statement to another. It is expressed by /ε๊/ 'and'. Example:
/mã sәbәqປ pәŗhәndປsI ε๊ huә lIkhәndi/ 'I shall read the lesson and she will write'.

(ii) Alternative: It express a choice between two alternatives. It is expressed by /ya/ 'or' /nәtә/ 'other wise' and /nәko….. nәko/ 'neither….. ..nor' etc. Examples:

/raju dehIliә vәndo ya mã vәndປsI/
 'Raju will go to Delhi or I shall go'. 
/tű vәրuປ nәtә műkhe vәրәղປ ḍՙe/ 'you go other wise let me go'. 
/hu nәko khae tho nәko pie tho/ 'Neither he eats or drinks'. 

The words /toŗe/ and /cahe/ are also used as the coordinate conjunctions which give the meaning of 'or'. Example:
/tű әcĩ tore/ cahe hu әce/ 'you come or he comes'.

(iii) Adversative: It expresses a contrast between two statements. It is expressed by /pәrә/ 'but'. Example:
/hປnә műkhe pεsa ḍ̉Ina pIe pәrә mű nә vәrta/ 'He was giving me money but I didn't accept'.

2.3.3.4.1.1.2. Subordinate conjunctions.
They join subordinate clauses to construct a complex sentence. Some of the main subordinate conjunctions which express time, location, direction, manner, reason, condition, result, concession etc. are given below.

(i) Time: /jәḍ̉әhĨ ….. tәḍ̉әhĨ/ 'when …. than' /jәḍ̉әhĨ hປnә pປchyo tәḍ̉әhĨ mű jәvәbປ ḍ̉Ino/ 'I answered when he asked (a question)'.
/jesĩ….tesĩ/ 'unless…till'.
/jesĩ mã ປte pәhປcã tesĩ tű nә vәրI jI/ 'unless reach there, you should not go'
/khã aģປ/ 'before'
/mã ute pәhປ tປsi tәhĨ khã әģປ hu hәli vyo/ 'He left before I reached there'.
/khã poI/ 'after'
/mã ghәrI pәhປtປsI tәhĨ khã poI hu vyo ho/ 'I reached home after he had gon'.

(ii) Location:
/jIte…… tite/ 'where… there'
/jite Iho kItabປ rәkhyo ho tite rәkhປ/ 'Put the book at the place where it was kept'.

(iii) Direction:
/jeḍ̉ãhű…. teḍ̉ãű/ 'where ….. there'
/jeḍ̉ãhű hu vәndo teḍ̉ãhű mã bI vendປsI/ 'I shall go where ever he goes'.

(iv) Manner:
/jiә๊…. tiә๊/ 'as……as'
/jiә๊ mű cәyo tiә๊ hປnә kәyo/ 'He did as I told him'.

(v) Cause or reason:
/Inә kәre/ 'there fore'
/hu rәribປ ho Inkәre mű sәndәsI mәdәdә kәi/ 'He was poor there fore I helped him'.
/cho te/ 'because'
/mã halә mẽ vәրi nә tho sәghã cho tә művәţI pasI kanhe/ 'I can't enter in the hall because I don't have a pass'. /so/ 'so'
vacә xәridә kәrIղi hປi so mű khesI sכ rປpәya ḍ̉Ina/ 'He wanted to purchase a watch so I gave him five hundred rupees'.

(vi) Condition:
/je……. tә/ 'if…… than'
/je huә ghәrI vendi tә mã bI vendәsI/ 'If she goes home, I shall also
go'.

/әgәrI/ is also used at the place of /je/ which gives the same meaning. Example:
/әgәrI hu ປte ahe tә mã hປnә sã ģalhaidປsI/ 'If he is there. I shall talk to him'.
/nәtә/ 'other wise, else'
/tәkIŗo ḍoŗປ nәtә gaḍ̉i gປsaindẽ/ 'Run fast, else you will miss the tain'.

(vii) Concession:
/jetoղikI……. tәhĩ hunde/ although.. even than'
/jetoղikI derI thi vei ahe tәhĨ hunde bI әsã khe thoro tәrsәղປ khәpe/ 'Although it is late, we should wait for some time'.

2.3.3.5. Intejections.

An interjection is a word or phrase which expresses some sudden feeling or emotion. It may be used in a simple, composite or reduplicate form i.e. /haI/ 'alas!', /әŗe vahә/ 'very good !' and /chi chi/ 'fie !' etc.

The interjections are also expressed with the help of nouns, pronouns, adjectives and verb.

The interjections are always used in the vocative forms and do not have any grammatical relation with any other word in a sentence. Actually an Interjection is a sentence itself.

	      The interjections may express joy, grief, surprise, hatred, rebuke and 
        approval etc.
		
	(i) Joy: /vahә/ 'how excellent!' 
		  /vahә havә/ hurrah!' 

	(ii) Grief: /haI haI/ 'alas!' 
		     /he ramә/ 'O God!' 
		     /әI әma/ 'O mother!' 
		     /mປປsI ŗe/ 'woe!! (lit o I am dead!)'

	(iii) Surprise: /әŗe/ 'oh!' 
			  /cha/ 'what!' 
			  /kerປ/ 'who!' 

	(iv) Hatred: /chi/ 'fie!' 
		        /bՙປḍՙI mәrĩ/ 'Shame! (lit-drown!)' 

	(v) Rebuke: /cປpI/ 'hush! Keep mum!' 
			/hәlປ/ 'go away!'

	(vi) /šabasI/ 'bravo!'