VIII. History of Sanskrit Literature

A. ORAL:

2. Types:

i) Ballads: Ballads refer to narrative poems of the past heroes. Rāmāyaṇa and Mahābhārata stories are also read as Ballads. In the case of Rāmāyaṇa, it is said that, during Rāmās period itself Vālmīki Rāmāyaṇa was sung as ballads by Lava and Kusha, the sons of Rama who were living in the forest with śīta in a hermitage.

There are many puranic stories that were sung as Ballads. According to Ganga Ram Garg,"There are also biographical accounts of the heroes of the past; some taking the form of Mahākāvyās: Parśurāma – Charita by R.S. Venkatarāma śastrī; on Pṛithvīrāja and Rāṇa pratāp by śripāda śāstrī Hasurkar, Mūlaśaṅkare Māṇikalāla yājñika: on Rānā pratap: Vīrapratapa - Nātaka (1937) by Mathurāprasada Dīkshita, a drama on a story of Mēwār: Amara – Maṅgala (1939) by pañchānan Tarkaratna, a novel, Chhatrasāla – Vijaya by Jagadrāma śāstri; on Sikh gurus by Krishṇā kaur, Sriēpāda śastri Hasurkar, satya vrata Shāstrī; on śivāji by Ambikādatta Vyāsa, Uma śaṅkara Tripathi, Mūlsaṅkara, Māṇikalāla yājñika, Rām Krishna Bhaṭṭa, Warṇekar, On Ahalyābāi by Sakhā rām Shāstri. There are works on historical accounts of Dynasties as Chālukya – Charita by Rāmanātha Nanda and Sāhu – Charita (1939) by V.A.Latkar śāstrī of a recent ruler of Kolhāpur, Jayapura – Vaibhava by Mathurānātha, Jayapura rāja - Vaṁśāvali (1938) by Rāmānatha Nanda, Raṇvīra Vijaye by Visveshwara etc."

There are Ballads on Mahātma Gandhi and Indira Gandhi also.

ii) Lyrics: Kālidāsā’s Mēghadūta (cloud messenger) and Bhartṛihari’s three śatakas on śriṅgāra, Vais̄agya and Nīti are excellent examples of this type. Religious lyrics inspired by sectarian fervour include the independent productions: Ānanda - Laharī (Wavelet of Bliss), hymn of 163 stanzas in praise of the goddess pārvati, composed by śaṅkarācharya and the Sūrya śataka (century of stanzas in praise of the sun), ascribed to Mayūra, the contemporary (and according to a tradition, the father-in-law) of Bāna (early 7th century A.D)

iii) Hymns: Vedas are the cultural treasures of India. They contain different types of hymns as discovered by the Ṛishis (sages) through the revelation of truth by the god.

Vedas are four in number, viz: Ṛgveda, Yajurvēda, Sāmaveda, Atharvana Veda, Sāyaṇa says "मंत्रात्मकं वेदं" Veda is full of hymns which are chanted or recited during the performance of Homa, yajna etc.

iv) Travelogues:Travelogues are travel accounts which are written by different authors. Vādiraja swāmi (15th century A.D) has written ‘तीर्थ प्रबंध’ containing travel accounts of swamiji to different pilgrim centers.

Other works on travelogue are sētu - yātra - varṇana by T. Gaṇapati śastry, Tribilava dala – champu (1937, on All-India tour) by V.S. Rāmaswamy sāstri, Uttarakhaṇḍa yātra by S.P. Bhattacharya etc.

v) Rituals song: In Veda, there are many ritual songs which are sung in praise of different deities. The Sāma veda contains many ritual songs. Among the rituals there are different types of Homas, Havanas, Yajñas which require singing of lot of songs pertaining to the rituals. There are also songs on birth, marriage ceremonies and death ceremonies.

vi) Mavagi song: Not noticed in Sanskrit.

vii) Festival Songs: There are many songs on festivals like Janmaṣtami - Gōpigītam, Ganaha festival songs, Gauri songs, songs related to Hanuman, Rāma, Krishna etc.

During navaratri and Deepavali also songs are sung.

viii) Folk song: Ṛgvēda contains several songs related to folk stories. Yama - yami, Ashvini Gods Indra, Varuṇa, Vāyu etc.

ix) Nataka: The concept of Nataka or drama is very old in Sanskrit literature. According to the Indian tradition, there is a divine origin to Sanskrit drama. It is said that at the request of Gods and mortals for entertainment, Brahma composed Nāṭya vēda taking the element of recitation form the Ṛgvēda, song from sāmaveda, gestures from yajurveda and sentiment from Atharva veda; śiva and pārwati contributed to the part of the dance, the former giving his tāṇdava and the later her lāsya. Vishnu brought forth the four dramatic styles called kaisikī, sāttvatī, Ārabhati and Bhārati. Sage Bharata was authorized to transfer it to the world and make it popular which he did accordingly. Viswakarma, the celestial architect, made the theatre.The earliest plays enacted were Tripuradahana, Samudramanthana or Indradhvaja festival.

From ancient times, singing, dancing and the drama were interrelated. The element of singing may be traced to the sāmavēda and dancing and gestures to the performance of sacred rites which are particularly connected with the yajurveda, the element of dialogues was taken from those Vedic texts such as those Yama and Yami, pururavas and Urvasi and others. The Vedic ritual contained all the elements required for the development of the Drama. Inspite of these similarities, it cannot be concluded that Vedic rituals alone influenced the growth of Sanskrit drama. The epics and short narratives provided the dramas with the lyrical element which dominates the Sanskrit dramas. The epics, which were recited during sacrificial sessions, gave the dramas, the element of recitation. The influence of rituals can be well recognized because the dramas were enacted on religious occasions, festivals and at the time of worship of a deity.

Pischel suggested that the drama had its origin in the puppet plays which are frequently referred to in the Mahābhārata, Kathasaritsāgara and Bāla rāmāyaṇa of Rāja śekhara as puttalika, putrika and Darumayī.

Luder holds that shadow play is an essential element in the growth of Sanskrit drama. The term Rūpapa is the best example for this view.

Some of the western scholars suggested the influence of the Greek Dramas on the origin and growth of Sanskrit dramas. The Greek dramas, which were staged in the courts of the Indian Kings subsequent to Alexander’s invasion, must have influenced the Indian writers in writing the Sanskrit dramas on their model. Both the Greek and the Sanskrit dramas are divided into acts which are normally five in number. At the end of each act, the actors depart from the stage. The entry of a new character into the stage is announced by a character already present there. The love theme is common to both, as also the division of characters as high, middle and low. The word 'Yavanika' which refers to the curtain in the Sanskrit Drama shows its connection with the word Yavana referring to the Greek. The yavana maidens were employed by the Indian kings as their bodyguard. However, there are differences between Greek and Sanskrit Dramas such as the Greek chorus is unknown to Sanskrit. The Sanskrit dramas are romantic in character whereas the Greek dramas are classical.

However, many scholars consider that Sanskrit dramas have Indian origin only. The Bharata’s 'Naṭyasāstra' is the source for Indian drama. There are different types of the drama such as : (1) Nāṭaka (2) Prakarṇa (3) Bhāṇa (4) Prahasana (5) Dima (6) Vyāyōga (7) Samavakāra (8) Vithi (9) Anka (10) Thamraga.

We are concerned here with Nātaka. It is based on the theme already available. It has the king as the hero, the queen as the heroine and has five to ten acts. The main sentiment shall be śrṅgara or Vīra. Kālidāsa’s Abhijñāna shākuntala and Bhaṭṭanarayana’s Vēṇisaṁhāra illustrate this type.

There are many dramas written by kālidasa, Bhāsa and others which will be explained under classical Sanskrit literature under the heading, written literature.

x) Dashawtara: It is believed that lord Vishnu took different incarnation to save a Dharma or religion. They are Matrya, Kūrma, Varaha, Narasimha, Vāmana, Buddha, Rāma, Krishna, and Kalki. People enact these on certain festival depicting the story of particular incarnation, like Narasimha and Vāmana. Details are not known on this.

xi) Yakshagāna: It has its name or source from the yaksha i.e. the song of the yaksha. In Karnataka, in Udupi and other coastal areas, yakshagāna is alive even today. It is said that Bharata’s Naṭyasāstra is the source for this. It is an admixture of four arts, viz: Music, Literature, Dance and Visuals. It has two parts: (1) Pūrva Ranga or Sabhālakshaṇa (2) selection of the story from the epics like Mahabhārata and Rāmayana.

Yakshagāna is divided into different types, viz: Paduvala pāya, Mūdala paya.

Yakshagānas are performed in the regional languages and not in Sanskrit. I have not come across yakshagānas performing in Sanskrit. Shivaram Karanth of Udupi, Karnataka was a great scholar and performer of yakshagāna. It is team work. Usually it is played during nights.

Marsiya, Mourning song and Lullabies are not noticed in Sanskrit.

Kirtan/Bhajan is noticed. There are some Bhajans in Sanskrit usually sung during the nights by the Bhajana Mandali. Such songs include the deities like Vishnu, Shiva, Lakshmi, Vāyu, Hanumān etc.

In Karnataka, DASA literature is very popular. Purandara Dasa, kanaka dasa, Jagannatha Dāsa are very famous. In north, Mīra and Kabira are worth mentioning. Songs are sung with the help of musical instruments.

With this a short sketch of oral Sanskrit literature is over. Now, let us take written literature. Written literature is studied in 3 stages, viz: (1) pre-kālidasa (2) kālidasa (3) post kālidasa.

Let us study one by one.

B. Classical Sanskrit literature (Written):

Introduction: Classical Sanskrit literature comprises of works of different poets (कवि). These works are called epics (काव्य). Rhetoricians define ‘काव्य’ or epic as follows:

	(1) Vāmana :  गुणालंकारयुत्कौ शब्दार्थो काव्यं 
	(2) Bhōja :  निर्दोष गुणालंकार रसवद्वाक्यं
	(3) Vāgbhata : गुणालंकाररीति रसोपेतः संदर्भः काव्यम्।   
	(4) Panditaraj : रमणीयार्थ प्रतिपादकः शब्दः काव्यम्। 
	(5) Mahima Bhaṭṭa :  ध्वन्यात्मकं वाक्यं काव्यं।  
	(6) Vishwanatha : वाक्यं रसात्मकं काव्यं। 

 	Mammaṭa tells the purpose of the Kāvya as follows: 
		काव्यं यशसे।़र्थकृते, व्यवहारविदे शिवेतरक्षतये।
		सद्यःपर (फल) निवृतये कांता सम्मित तयोपदेशयुजे।।

Ganga Ram Garg says on classical Sanskrit literataure as follows: "What is known as classical Sanskrit literature, originated around 4th century B.C. The most outstanding figure in classical Sanskrit literature is kālidāsa. In the pre-Kalidasa period, prose, poetry and drama were cultivated, but early works of these classes appear to have been lost. Of the pre-kālidasa works, we have the Dramās of Ashwaghosha and Bhāsa and two poetical works: Buddha-Charita (On the life of the Buddha, which was translated into Chinese in A.D. 420) and Saundarānanda of the former, who is placed by tradition as early as the time of Kanishka, whose reign began in A.D. 78."

As quoted from Ganga Ram Garg, Clasical Sanskrit literature can be classified into 3 parts: (1) Pre-kālidasa (2) Kalidāsa (3) Post Kālidasa.

i) Pre-Kālidasa literature: (History) It is difficult to say who the pre-Kālidasa poets were. The main reason for this is the conflicting views of the scholars on the dates about the poets. Keith considers Bhāsa and Ashvaghosha as predecessors of Kālidasa. Keith considers Ashwaghosha as contemporary of Kanishka and assigned him either to the end of the first or the middle of the second century A.D.

ii) Ashvaghosha: Ashwaghosha was a Buddhist and has written two Kāvyās, viz :(1) Buddhacharita (2) Saudarnananda. The information available to the scholars refer that Ashvaghosha was the son of Svarṇnākṣī, pupil pārśva and native of sākēta. It is believed that Ashwaghosha accompanied kanishka to Kashmir and was given great respect there. He was a court poet of kanishka. As a contemporary of kanishka, Ashvaghosha may have lived in the Ist century A.D.

Buddhacharita: It is a Mahakāvya depicting the life of Buddha in 28 cantos. It depicts the life of Buddha from his birth and closes with the first Buddhist council and the reign of Ashoka. The full poem has survived only in Chinese and Tibetian versions. The Sanskrit version that is available to us has only two to thirteen cantos and some portions of one and fourteen.

Ashwaghosha at the end of Buddha Charita says, "The noble law of Buddha ought to receive the adoration of the world. To sing the praises of the lordly monk and declare his acts from first to last, without self-seeking or self-honour, without desire for personal renown, but following what the scriptures say, to benefit the world has been my aim". The work did, indeed gain the status in the Buddhist tradition which Rāmayana gained in the Hindu faith. The Chinese Buddhist pilgrim 'YiTsing' who visited India in the 7th century wrote, "The Buddha charita is widely read or sung throughout the five divisions of India and the countries of the southern sea".

Saundarananda: It is available n 18 cantos, begins in an epic manner with an account of the line of kings, in which Siddhārtha, was born. The line is linked to the Ikṣvāku line of Rāma. Some Ikṣvāku princes come to the hermitage of kapila, banished by their father on the instigation of their step-mother. The building of the city of kapilavastu is described. After many generations śuddhodana becomes the king and marries Māyādēvi. The Buddha is born to them. A younger queen gives birth to another boy Nanda who was called Sundara because of his handsome looks. The poem deals with the conversion of Nanda into the Buddhistic fold. The conclusion becomes enlivened by the humanism of the Mahāyān doctrine.Buddha counsels him not to be satisfied with his own emancipation, but to work for the emancipation of others also.

iii) Bhāsa: In pre-Kālidasa literary figures, Bhāsa occupies an eminent position as dramatist. It is said that he has written 13 plays.

Bhāsās Date: There are different views of scholars on the date of Bhāsa. Ganapati shastry considers Bhāsa’s period as 4th century B.C as the possible date. Some scholars consider him as belonging to 2nd century A.D. Hence, his period can be considered somewhere between 4th century B.C to 2nd century A.D. The important evidence that can be said as Bhāsa was prior to Kālidasa is that Kālidasa himself quotes Bhāsa in his work. मालविकाग्निभित्र as: "प्रथित यशसां भास सौमिल्ल कविपुत्रादीनां प्रबंधानतिक्रम्य वर्तमान कवेः कालिदासस्य क्रियामिनां द्रष्टुम् कथं परिषदो बहुमानः" (Ignoring the great poets like Bhāsa, Saumilla, Kaviputra who had attained famous earlier to him because of their works, prize was given to his work by the king).

	The 13 plays of Bhāsa are classified into four types as follows: 

	(1) Plays based on the Rāmāyaṇa : 

		1. प्रतिमानाटकम्  2.अभिषेक नाटकम्

	(2)  Plays based on the Mahābharata 

		1. पंचरात्रम् 		2. दूतवाक्यम्   	3. मध्यमव्यायोगः
		4.  दूतघटोत्कचम्   	5. कर्णभारम् 	6. ऊरुभढङ्गम्   

	(3)  Plays based on the Bhāgavata :  

		1. बालचरितम्

	(4) Plays based on Fables and Fictions : 

		(1) प्रतिज्ञायौगंघरापणम्   (2) स्वप्नवासवदत्तम् 
		(3) चारुदत्तम्   (4) अविमारकम्   

'प्रतिमानाटक' drama is in seven acts depicting the story of Rāmāyana beginning from the stopping of Rama’s coronation and ending with his coronation after Rāvaṇa was killed.

'अभिषेकनाटक' is in six acts depicting the coronation ceremony of Rāma; sūgriva and Vishishaṇa.

'पंचरात्र' is in three acts with a title “Five nights” within which Drōṇa is to bring the news of the paṇḍavās to entitle them to their share of kingdom according Duryōdhana’s stipulation. "दूतवाक्याम्" is one act plays dealing with the advise of Krishna to Duryodhana as an emissary of peace from the pānḍavās.

"मध्यमव्यायोग" is the play in which the theme is the union of Bheema with his son Gatotkaca. "दूतघरोत्कचम्" is a one act play speaks of Ghatotkaca as an envoy (दूत) carrying the message of Krishna to the Kauravas.

"कर्णभारम" is a one act play. It deals with the story of Karṇa donating his "कवच कुंडल" to a Indra in the guise of a Brahmin.

"ऊरुभंगम्" is also one act play describing the smashing of the thighs of Duryuodhana in the club fight.

"बालचरित" is in five acts and deals with the feats (Charita) of the boy Krishna.

"प्रतिज्ञायौगंधरायण" is in four acts and deals about the Oath of यौगंधरायण. The Oath was that to set free his master Udayana alongwith Vāsavadatta from imprisonment.

"स्वप्नवासवदत्तम्" contains 6 acts. This play deals with the strategies of यौगंधरायण to get back the territories of Udayana which he lost owing to his negligence. Vāsavadatta is reported to have perished in a wild conflagration. Padmāvati, the sister of king Darshaka is married to Udayana. Vāsavadatta was all along living in disguise with padmāvati. Udayana has a vision of Vāsavadatta in dream and feels hopeful of meeting her alive. Reunion is at last effected by the wise minister. The scene of kings’ sleep is presented on the stage.

'चारुदत्तम्' is in four acts and is an abridgement of ‘Mrichha kaṭika’ containing the story of Chārudatta. 'अविमारकम्' is a play in six acts and gets its name from its hero called 'Avimāraka' though his name was Vishnusēna, because of his being the killer (māraka) of the demon who had assumed the form of a goat.

iv) Kālidasa and his works:

Kālidasa was a great poet and was called "Mahākavi" and also "Kavikula Guru". Kālidasa was his real name or a title is also not clear, but he is referred by many as Kālidasa.

Period: It is very difficult to say when Kālidasa lived. W.B.Keith in his classical Sanskrit literature (pp27) says that, "Indian tradition has left us with no trustworthy knowledge of its greatest poet; stories of ignorance, enlightened by divine favour, cannot blind us to the conclusive evidence displayed in the works preserved to us of elaborate training in all the learning available to a Brahmin student of the Gupta era, from the science of politics to astrology and the Kāma śāstra. Tradition also leaves us in tantalizing ignorance of his date; the fancy that takes him to Ceylon to perish at the hand of a courtesan and makes his friend, king kumāra dvsa, in his grief cause himself to be burned by his side, cannot be seriously treated as evidence of a synchrony with that writer, whose Jānakcharaṇa shows conclusive signs of indebtedness to Kālidāsa. We are left, then to such suggestions of date as can be gathered from kālidāsa’s works, and their position in the literature. It cannot seriously be doubted that he was later than Aśvaghoṣa and the dramatist Bhāsa certainly in my opinion, whose plays we owe to the energy of T.Gaṇapati śāstrī; everything points to his flourishing in the time of Gupta glory".

Thus, Keith puts Kālidāsa during the period of Gupta dynasty. The king of this dynasty, viz: Vikramāditya, the founder of Vikrama era that is 57 B.C may be the contemporary of Kālidāsa. Other scholars like Mr. Hyppolyte Franche give the date that Kālidāsa belonged to 8th century B.C on the ground that Kālidāsa was a contemporary of the son of Agnivarma, the last king of solar dynasty described Raghuvamsa, written by Kālidāsa. Prof C.Kunhan Raja considers that kālidāsa was a contemporary of king Agnimitra of the sunga dynasty supposed to belong to second century B.C. William Jones, Peterson, S.P.Pandit say that Kālidāsa belonged to first century B.C. Maxmuller, Kern, Pathak and other scholars say that Kālidāsa belonged to 6th century A.D. Thus, the date of Kālidāsa hangs between two extremes of 8th century B.C to 400 A.C.

Now let us look into the works of Kālidāsa. He wrote two Mahakavyas, viz: Raghuvaṁśa and Kumārasambhava, three Drāmas ,viz: Mālavikāgnimitra, Vikramorvasīya, Abhijnānashākuntala and two lyrics (Khaṇḍakāvyās) viz: Ṛtusaṁhāra and Mēghadūta.

Raghuvaṁśa is the epic which tells us the history of the family of Raghu in which the poet describes the life and achievements of Rama and also those of his predecessors and successors. It contains seventeen cantos; the first nine cantos give the history of four immediate predecessors of Rāma, viz: Dilīpa, Raghu, Aja and Daśaratha. The career of Rāma is described in seven cantos. Then an account of the sucessors of Rāma upto Agnivarṇa is described. The last canto tells us the coronation of his posthomos prince who was then in embryo.

The Kumārasambhava is another epic of Kālidāsa. It contains 17 cantos and describes the birth of Kumāra, the war god, who is also known as Kārtikeya, born to God Shiva and Uma to kill the demon Tārakāsura.

Mālavikāgnimitra is a drama in 5 acts dealing with the love of Agnimitra, son of puṣyamitra for a princess Mālavika. It is an historical play.

Vikramorvasīyam is another drāma in 5 acts depicting the love of King Purūravas for the celestial nymph Ūrvasi.

Abhijnāna Shākunthala is another drama in 7 acts where the love of Dushyanta and Shakuntala is described. The story is based on the episode found in Mahābhārata under "Shakuntalōpākhyāna". This drāma is considered as the masterpiece of Kālidasa. It is said that the fourth act of this play is more charming and even there the four slokas are the best as said below.

		काव्येषुनाटकं रम्यं तत्र रम्या शकुंतला।
		तत्रापिच चतुर्थोङ्कः तत्र श्लोक चतुष्टयम्।।

"Among epics Dramas are beautiful, among dramas the Drama of Shakuntala is beautiful, even in this drama 4th canto is beautiful, even in the 4th canto the four slokas there are much more beautiful".

Sir Monier Williams considers Kālidasa as Shakespeare of India because of his dramas.

Mēghadūta is a lyric containing a love story. "A Yakṣa, banished by his master for his dereliction in the discharge of the duty, is obliged to leave his home and wife and to wander in the Rāmagiri areas of the south. In the beginning of the rainy season, he sees a thundering cloud that is moving from the south (where he lives) towards, his homeland (that was in north). He then implores the cloud to convey message to his aggrieved wife separated from him living in the city of Alakā situated in the Kailasa hill".

Ṛtusaṁhara is another lyric. In this poem, the series of six seasons – the summer, the rain, the autumn, the winter, the time of frost and the spring and described.

There is a verse which says like this, "पुष्पेषु चंपा नगरीषुलंका नदीषु गंगा नृपतेषु रामः। काव्येषु माघः कविकालिदासः"- Among flowers champaka flower is the best, Among cities the Lanka of Rāvana, Among rivers Ganga, Among kings Rāma, Among epics Māgha and among poets Kālidasa is the best.

In this way, Kalidasa plays an important role in the history of Sanskrit literature.

v) Post Kālidāsa literature:

1) Bhartrumenṭha (430 A.D.): He was in the court of Mātrugupta. His name is referred in Rajatarangini. His work is "Hayagiriva Vadha". Mammata refers him.

2) Bhāran (550 A.D.) : Mammata who was alive in the 11th century A.D quotes Bhāravi in his work ‘kāvya prakāśa”. Bharavi has written a work called ‘Kirātārjunīyam’. It contains 18 Cantos. "भारवेरर्थगौरवम्"- Bhārani is famous for his meaningful words.

This is a ‘Mahākāvya’ i.e great epic. The story is based from the Vanaparva of Mahābhārata. The story is as follows: "Sage Vyāsa advised the pāṇḍavas to leave the Dvita forest and when they had done so, Yudhistra urges Arjuna to obtain celestial weapons for the fight with the kauravas to gain the kingdom. Arjuna obeys, proceeds to the Himalayas, meeting en route an ascetic who seeks to turn him from his purpose of practicing penance to win divine favour; but when he fails to dissuade him, reveals himself and gives him his blessing. Attaining his goal Arjuna practices penance and after a conflict with Shiva under the guise of a Kirāta obtains from his conqueror the weapons he desires".

3) Bhatti: (6th - 7th century A.D) He lived in the court of king Varasena. His work is 'Rāvaṇa Vadha' in 12 Cantos.

4) Bāṇa: He lived between the end of 6th century and the beginning of 7th century. His father is Arthapati and mother Rājyadēvi. He lived during the period of Sri Harsha the great king. He has written three works (कृति), viz: (1) Harsha Carite (2) Kādambari (3) Chandiśataka.

'Harshacarite' is in 8 Cantos. It deals with the life and achievements of Sriharsha.

'Kādambari'- it gives the love story of Chandrapeeda and Mahāswēte. Chandrapeeda is the son of an Ujjayani king called Tarapeeda. His close friend is Vaisampāyana Minister’s son. They both go to forest on 'Caitrayātra'. There he meets Mahasweta and her friend Kādambari. Chandrapeeda loves kādambari. The story has many mystic things. The entire story is very interesting.

The entire text is in prose with long compounds. 'Chandiśataka' is a poem of 100 verses praising the goddess chandi.

5) Māgha: (Last part of 7th century A.D.) A king by name Varma lākhya or Dharmalāta had a minister by name Suprabhadēva. His son was Datta Sarvārrya. Māgha was the son of Dattasarvarrya. He has written only one work called 'śiśupāla Vadha'. This epic is in 20 Cantos containing 1650 slokas. It deals with the story of 'Rajasūya yāga' performed by Dharma rāja. In this yāga who should get 'Agrapūja', the debate goes on this issue and Sri Krishna kills śiśupāla on account of this. Regarding the qualities of Māgha it is said that:

		उपमा कालिदासस्य भारवर्थगौरवम् ।
		दंडिनः पदलालित्यं माधेसंति त्रयोगुणाः।।

'उपमा' Alamkara of Kālidasa is famous, अर्थगौरवं of Bhāravi is famous, 'पदलालित्य' of Dandin is famous. But Māgha contains all these qualities.

6) Dandi: (660 A.D.) Some scholars say that his other name was Dāmōdara. If it is true, Manoratha is Bhāravi’s son. His 4th son’s name was Veera Datta; His wife’s name was Gauri. Dandi was born to Veera Datta and Gauri. He was in the court of pallava king by name Narasimha Verma.

Dandi’s works are: (1) Avanti Sundari Katha (2) Daśakumara Charite (3) Kāvyādarsha (Alamkāra work) (4) Dvisandhāna. His works are an admixture of both Gauḍi and Vaidarbhi styles.

7) Kumāra Dāsa (675 to 750 A.D): His life particulars are not known. He has written an epic called 'Jānakī Harṇa'. It contains 20 Cantos. After Kumāra Dāsa, there is a gap of 100 years, later some short epics were written. They are as follows:

8) Ānanda Vardhana: (850 A.D.) He was a court scholar of Kāshmīr king by name Avanti Verma. He was the son of Nona. His works are : (1) Dvanyalōka (2) Viṣhama Bāṇa līla (3) Hari Vijayam (4) Arjuna Caritam (5) Mata Pariksha (6) Dharmōttara Vinishyaṭika (7) Dēviśatakam. Among all Dvanyalōka is famous. He is the founder of Sphōṭavāda.

9) Ratnakara (850 A.D): His father name was Bhānu. He was in the court of Jayapeeda. His works are (1) Vakrokti pancāśika (2) Dhvanigātha pañcika (3) Hara Vijaya. He is regarded as one of the 10 best poets as mentioned below.

आदौ श्रीकालीदासस्यात् अश्वघोष स्ततः परम्। भारविष्च तथा भट्टिः कुमारश्चापि पंचम्ःऋ माघ रत्नाकरौ पष्चात् हरिश्चंद्र तथैवच, कविराजश्च श्रीहर्षः प्रख्याता कवयो दश।।

"First Kālidāsa, second Ashva Ghōṣa, then Bhāravi and Bhaṭṭi, Kumāra is fifth one, next Māgha and Ratnākara, then Harischandra, next Kavirāja and Sriharsha. Like this 10 are famous"

Ratnakara is one among the ten poets mentioned above.

10) śivaswamy: (850 A.D.) He was the friend of Ānanda Vardhana. His father’s name was Bhaṭṭāraka. His work is "Kapiphaṇābhyadaya" .It contains 20 Cantos. This work depicts the story of a southern king by name Kapiphaṇa.

11) Mēntha (10th Century A.D) He belongs to Kāshmir. His work 'Nātyashāstra' is very famous. His other work is an epic called 'Havagrif̄va vadha'. He was in the court of the king Mātrugupta.

12) Bhaumaka (10th Century A.D) : He was the contemporary of Mentha. His work is 'Ravāṇarjunīya'. It contains 27 Cantos. It deals on Kārta vīryārjuna and Rāvaṇa.

13) Kanaka sēna Vādirāja (10th Century A.D): His work is 'Yaśōdhara Charitam'.

14) Halayudha (10th Century A.D): His work is 'Kavirahasya'. In this, there is a description of a Rāstrakūṭa king called 3rd Krishna.

15) Harichandra (11th century A.D) : His father was Ādradēva and mother Ratna dēvi. He was a Jain by religion. His works are: (1) Dharmasharmā - bhyudaya (2) Jeevan Champu. Firtst one is in Vaidharbhi style and deals about the 15th Tirthankara Dharmanātha: It contains 11 Cantos.

16) Kshemēndra (1025 – 1080 A.D) : He was a Kāshmiri Brāhmin. His father was prakāsendra. He was a disciple of Abhivagupta. He wrote 20 books, out of that 7 are famous and are as follows: (1) Rāmāyaṇa Manjari (2) Bhārata Manjari (3) Brahatkatha Manjari (4) Daśāvatāra carita (5) Aaucitya Vichāra Charca (6) Kavikanṭhā bharaṇa and (7) Padya kādambari.

17) Lōlamba Rāja : (1050 A.D.) His work is Harivilas.

18) Bilhaṇa : (11th century A.D.) His father’s name was Jēsṭa kalaśa, mother Nāgasēvi. He wrote two epics: (1) Vikramānka Dēva Charita (2) Caura Pancāśika. First one deals on the history of his king Vikramānka. Second one deals on a love story of Rājakumara and Vidyādēvi. His works are in Vaidarbhi style.

19) Kalhaṇa (1100 – 1165): He was in the court of Jayasimha, a Kāshmīri king. His work is Raja tarangini. This gives the history of Kāshmira of his period.

20) Hemachandra (1088 – 1172): His work is 'Trisásasṭi śalākā purusa caritam'. It deals on 63rd Jaina tirthankara.

21) Vāgbhaṭa : (1094 – 1143 AD) He was the minister of Cālukya king Jayasimha. He was a son of Sōma. His works are: (1) Vāghbhaṭalankāra (2) Nēminātha charitre. His first work contains 5 chapters and second work deals on Nēminatha, a Jaina Tirthankara.

22) Sree Harsha: (12th Century AD) He was a Maithili Brāhmin. His father was Heera and mother Māmalla Dēvi. His works are: (1) Naishadha Kāvya (2) Shiva Bhakti (3) Simha Sāhasānka Champu (4) Chanda Prasasti (5) Vijaya Praśasti (6) Gaudōrviśa praśasti.

Sreeharshās Naishadha Kāvya is very famous and it deals with the Nala Damayanti story of Mahābhārata.

23) Kavirāja: (12th Century A.D) He was the son of Keertinarayana and Chandra mukhi. His work is 'Pārijātāpaharaṇa'. His other work is 'Rābhava pānda Vīya'.

24) Jayadēva: (12th Century A.D) He was the court poet of Bengal king Lakshmana sēna. He was the son of Bhōjadēva and Vāmadēvi. He came to puri and became a devotee of Jagannātha. His work is 'Gita Govinda'. It contains 12 chapters. It is famous for literary, Devotional, musical and mystic.

25) Venkatanātha (1269 – 1370): He was a great scholar of Visisṭhādvaita. He has written 'Yādavābhyadam'. He was a son of Anantha sūri and Totāmba. He has also written a drama called 'Sankalpa sūryodāya'

'Yādavābhyudaya' is of 24 cantos. It deals on the life and achievements of Sri Krishna.

After this, there is a gap of 200 years; the next poet available is Rāmachandra of 1542 A.D.

26) Ramachandra (1542 A.D): He was the son of Lakshmaṇa bhatta. He ha written an epic called 'Rasika ranjana'.

27) Jagannatha: (1660 – 1680) He was living in the period of Moghul king Ṣhahjahan. He married Lavange. His works are : (1) Pīyūṣa lahari (2) Sudhalahari (3) Amrata Lahari (4) Karṇa lahari (5) Lakshmi Lahari (6) Prāṇabharaṇam (7) Jagadabharaṇam (8) Chitra Meemamsa Khandanam (9) Manarama kuca mardanam (10) Bhāmini Vilāsa (11) Rasagangādhara. Rasagangādhara is a famous work.

Next satge is on 'Moral epics' Nītikāvya.

28) Bhartrahari (6th Century AD) : He has written 'Vākya padīya'. His works are Nīti śataka, śrangāra śataka, Vairāgya śataka.

29) Guṇaḍhya: (600 A.D.) His work is Brahatkatha. It is not available now.

30) Subandhu: (8th century AD) His work is Vāsavadatta. It is different from Bhāsās Supra Vāsavadatta. It is love story of Pushpakētu and Vāsavaddatta.

31) Vishnusharma: His work is 'Panchatantra'. It contains five chapters. It is a story of a lion pingalaka and a bull Sanjeevaka. Pingalaka had two ministers called Karataka and Damanaka who plot to kill the Bull.

32) Narāyaṇa : (1373 AD) His work is 'Hitopadēśa'.

33) Abhinava Gupta (950 AD) : He has written 'Lōcana' to Dhavanya lōka.

Thus, in Sanskrit there are six Mahākavyās, viz: (1) Raghuvaṁsa (2) Kumāra Sambhava by Kālidasa (3) Kiratarjuniyam by Bhāravi. (4) śiśupālavadha by Māgha (5) Ravaṇa vadha by Bhatti (6) Naishadhīya Charita by Sri Harsha.

In addition to the above there are five self-styled Mahākāvyas namely (1) Nalodaya (2) Jānakai - Harṇa (3) Rāghava Pāṇḍavīya (4) Vikramānka Dēva charita (5) Rājatarangini.

34) Bhōja (1018 – 1063): He was a king of Puramara dynasty. His first capital was Ujjain; later on he shifted to Dhāra. His works are: (1) Rāmāyaṇa Champu (2) Saraswati Kata Bharaṇa (3) śrangāra prakāśa.

35) Kuntaka: (11th Century A.D) His work is 'Vakrokti jīvita'. It deals on 'Alaṅkāra'.

36) Mahima Bhaṭṭa (11th Century A.D) : He was the son of Sridhara. He has written 'Vyakti Viveka'. It is in 3 cantos. He is the critic of 'Dhvani'. He believes in scientific logic (Hētupakaksha).

37) Mammaṭa: (11th century AD) He was the son of Jayyaṭa, a resident of Kāshmīr. His work is "Kāvya prakāśa". It is in ten chapters. Each chapter is called 'Ullāsa'.

38) Appayya Dikshita: (1554 – 1626) He was a son of Rangarāja, born in a Village near Kāncipuram, present Tamil Nādu. He was living in the Vijayanagara Kingdom under the ruler venkatadēva. He was a teacher of Bhaṭṭoji Dikshita who wrote 'Siddhānta Kaumudi'. His works are: (1) Chitra Meemamsa (2) Kuvalayananda (3) Yādavābhyudaya Vyākhyā.

39) Grammatical literature: Vyākaraṇa or Grammar is regarded as one of the six parts called 'षडंग'. 'प्रधानंच षडंगेषु व्याकरणम्'. It is more important than the other five. It is said that Indra was the first grammarian to analyse the language. Much before pāṇini (5th century B.C) there were grammarians such as

		"इंद्रश्चंद्रः काशकृस्नः अपिशाली शाकटायनः" 

'Indra, Chandra, Kāśkrashtna, Apiśali śākatāyana'.

39 a) Yāska: (7th century B.C.) His work is Nirukta. It deals on the derivation of the words. It is a compilation of important words from Vēda. It is in 5 chapters. He said that all nouns were derived from Verbs. His work is available. His book reveals many other aspects such as religious, social aspects of that period.

39 b) Pāṇini : (5th Century B.C) His main work is Asṭadhyāyi. It is in 8 chapters. He was the greatest grammarian of his period. His work is praised by many foreign scholars (more details are available in chapter two, under structure).

39 C) Kātyāyana: (3rd or 4th century B.C.) He has written Vārtika to Astadhyāyi. He has made critical study of 'Asṭadhyāyi' in his Vātika.

39 d) Patañjali: (Ist century A.D) His main work is 'Māhābhāshya'. He upholds pāṇini.

39 e) Bhartrahari : (4th or 5th Century A.D) His main work is 'Vakyapadīya' .He deals mainly on syntax.

Then there are so many commentators of 'Asṭadhyāyi' like 'Kāsiki', Bhattōji Dikshita’s Siddhānta Kaumudi and many other works.

More information is available on the grammatical literature in the introduction of chapter II- Structure of the language.

There are different Shastra’s like Nyāya, Vaisēshika, Vedānta etc. All of them are not covered here. This chapter primarily concentrates on the literary figures before Kālidāsa, Kālidāsa and Post Kālidāsa periods.

2. Genres:

Fiction, Short story, light essay, play, Epics, poetry, Commentary, Autobiography, Biography, women classic, Memories, Travelogues Resources.

In order to cover all these aspects in one write-up, I shall quote Ganga Ram Garg. "Anthologies: The Anthologies play an important part in extending our knowledge of Sanskrit literature. The noteworthy Anthologies are Kavīndra – Vachana – Samuchaya or Subhāṣita Ratna Kōśa by Vidyākara (12th century A.D), Subhāṣitavalīs by Vallabhadēva (12th Century) and by śrīvara (15th century), Sādhukti Karaṇāmṛita by śridhara dāsa (early 13th century), Sūktimuktāvali of Jathaṇa (13th century A.D), śārangadhara paddhati by śāranga dēva (14th century A.D) and subhāshita ratna Bhandāgara."

a) Fables and Narratives:

For popular instruction, ethical stanzas were early added to existing fables and popular stories. A collection of this kind was translated into Pahalavi (middle Persian) in 6th century but neither the transaction nor the original is extent. A Syriac translation exists, however, made from the pahalavī in the same century. The Sanskrit original, which probably consisted of 14 chapters, was later re-cast, the result being the "pañcha tantra" (five chapters of five headings of wisdom), of which several recensions exist ascribed by some scholars to Vishnu śarman. It consists of five books, viz: separation of friends, acquisition of friends, peace and war, loss of what is acquired and rash action. A popular but late summary of this in four books, the Hitopadeṣa (Good counsel) has been shown to have been composed by one Nārāyaṇa. This is considered as the Bengal version of the Pañvcatantra. J.Hertel records over 200 versions of the work known to exist in more than 50 langauges (three fourths of the languages being non-Indian), spreading over the region from Jāva to Iceland.

Other popular collections of stories and fairy tales are the 'śuka – saptati' (Seventy stories related by the parrot), when a parrot by relating 70 stories saves the chastity of its master’s newly-wed wife, and the Vētāla panca - Viṁśati (Twenty-five stories of the Vetāla) existing in four recentions, which must be earlier than the 11th century, since it was used by two 11th century authors : Somadeva, who composed the Kathāsaritsāgara (Ocean of streams of story), a collection of tales in some 22,000 couplets, and Kshemandra, author or a smaller compiler of tales, the Bṛihat-Kathā-mañjarī, the Kathā-saritsāgara which is the source of many tales in the thousand and one Nights.

Sanskrit literature from 13th to 18th century:

The literature after the 12th century is represented by many historical kav̄yās, notably on the kings of Vijayanagar and Tanjore; The śivabhātata on śivāji, kēśavā’s Rājarāmacharita on śivāji’s son; Message poems on the model of Kālidāsa’s Meghadūta and drāmas composed by Venkaṭanātha Vēdāntha Dēśika (the author of the Mahākāvya, Yādavābhyudaya), Yaśahpāla, Vādichandra, Nallādīkṣita, Gokulanātha, and others in favour of several schools of philosophy in imitation of Prabōdha-chandrōdaya.

The striking careers of eminent persons in the field of literature and philosophy were also used for writing poems and drāmas; of such works based on biography, mention may be made on the works of Harihara (15th century A.D), Varadācharya etc. Among later prose works is the Gadyakarṇāmṛita by Vidyachakravartin (13th century A.D).

Classical literature in south India was dominated by Nīlakanṭha Dīkṣita(17th century A.D) who wrote two Mahākāvyās : śivalilarṇava (detailing the 64 līlās of god Hālasyanātha, by which name śiva is worshipped at Madura) and Gangāvatacaṇa (on the descent of the celestial Gaṅgā) and several minor poems.

To some extent, the vernacular influenced writing in Sanskrit. In south India, many lives of saints and glorifications of local shrines were written in Sanskrit on the basis of Tamil works. In the field of Telugu literature, there are some Sanskrit translations of Telugu poems.

Classical literature did not stop under the Mohammedan or the British domination. Several Persian translations were produced by Hindu epics, Upanishads and scientific work. Sanskrit poets were patronized by imperial courts; Persian-Sanskrit dictionaries and Persian readers in Sanskrit were compiled; a few works from the Persian were also translated into Sanskrit. The similar impact of Christianity through the missionary settlements produced a few translations from the Bible.

It is interesting to note that Sanskrit literature was not limited to the confines of India. This literature and the culture it enshrined spread to remote lands in the Far East e.g. Cambodia, Malaya, Sumātra, Borneo, Jāva, Bāli and the Phillippīne Islands. Such nearer neighbours of India as Tibet, Nēpāl and Burma were deeply influenced by this literature. In some of the above places, treatises were composed in Sanskrit and Sanskrit inscriptions were freely written. Even China and Japān betray the influence of Sanskrit literature. Persia and Arabia in the Middle East show their early acquaintance with Sanskrit literature that this literature was cultivated in central Asia is amply borne out by the finds of manuscripts of important works in that region. From very early times, the west has been acquainted with this literature through translations. The Greeks and Romans were probably the earliest European people to influence or to be influenced by this literature, particularly in the field of astronomy. Of the Pañcatantra, as Hertel has pointed out, there are well over 200 editions in 50 langauges, three-fourth of which are non-Indian.

b) Lexicography:

The great dictionary is the Amara - Kośa by Amara simha, who probably lived in the 6th century A.D. The other important works in this field are: [Abhidhāna ratnamāla by Halayudha (10th century A.D) Vaijayanī: Anēkārtha - kośa, Anēkārtha - śabdakōsa, the lexical works of Purushōttama deva: Vācaspatya and śabdakalpadruma.

Medicine (Āyurvēda) and Chemistry: From the mention of the 'three humours' (wind, bile, phlegm) in a Vārtika to Pāṇini, some kind of humoral pathology seems, however, to have been prevalent among Indian Physicians several centuries before the Christian Era. The oldest existing medical work is thought to be the Charaka – Saṁhita, a bulky encyclopaedia in ślokās mixed with prose sections. It consists of eight parts of equal authority but somewhat later is the Suśruta - Saṁhita (mainly on surgery), which Suśruta is said to have received from Dhanvantari. There have been supplementary treatises as well to these Saṁhitas. Other treatises of lesser importance are those attributed to Vāgbhaṭa. All later treaties were chiefly based on those works.

Apart from some chemical preparations prescribed by Charaka and Suśrata, Chemistry texts properly so called begin with Rasa - ratnākara, attributed to Nāgarjuna, whom several traditions describe as an alchemist.

c) Astronomy, Mathematics and Astrology:

Early Indian astronomical knowledge is summed up in Lagadha’s 'Jyotisha-Vedānga or Vēdānga - Jyōtisha', which is available in two recensions. A more scientific approach is marked by the appearance of the five original siddhāntas, which are partly extant in revised redactions and in Quotations. These five are: Vāsishṭha, Paitāmaha, Rōmaka (i.e. Roman), Pauliśa and sūrya or saura. Of these Sinddhāntās, two: Romaka and Pauliśa bear non-Indian names and suggest western influence. Based on these are the works of the most distinguished astronomers: Aryabhaṭa (476 AD), Varāha mihira (Probably 505 - 587), Brahma gupta who compiled his Brāhma-sphuta-Siddhānta in 628 Bhaṭṭotpala (10th century A.D), distinguished as the Commentator of Varāhamihira, and Bhāskarāchārya (1114 A.D), who finished his course of astronomy, the Siddhānta - śiromaṇi in 1150. Some scholars are of the view that between Vedāṇga - Jyōtisha (900 B.C) and the works of Āryabhaṭa (5th century AD), the development in mathematical astronomy is found in Jaina canonical texts like, Sūrya-prajñapti, Chandra prajñapti (4th century B.C) etc.

The beginnings of Mathematics are unknown, but the sacrificial formulas of the Yajurveda bear witness to the use of high numbers among special names (upto arbuda = 100,000,000)

Mathematics, other than ritual geometry, was mostly linked with astronomy, and from the Ist century A.D, astronomical treatises generally included Mathematics (However, the manuals of Mahāvīracharya (9th century A.D) and of others were for calculations only. The Bakhshali Manuscript from Kāshmir (12th century A.D) is a collection of arithmetical problems and solutions). Bhāskaracharya’s Siddhānta - śiromaṇi has two chapters: Līlavatī and Bījagaṇita on Mathematics. The astronomical treatises also contain astrology, though Bhṛigu- Saṁhita is exclusively on astrology.

d) Music (Saṅgita):

The art of music has been praised in India from very early times. The extent theoretic treatises on music are, however, quite modern productions. The most highly esteemed works are: Saṅgīta – ratnakara (Jewel mine of Music) by śārṅadeva, Saṅgītamakaranda: Saṅgīta – darpana by Dāmodaradeva, Saṅgīta - pārijāta by Saṅgīta – rāja.

e) Sanskrit literature from 1801 to 1981:

The Indo-European contact has been of equal significance in the two contexts. The discovery of Sanskrit by the west had been the most significant event in the European thought since the Renaissance. So far as India is concerned, this discovery of Sanskrit had a two-fold effect: On the one hand, Indians who received a modern education woke into a new realization of the values of their cultural heritage and the work of the western orientalist produced a cultural and literary revival in India; on the other, the impact of western modes of thought and ways of life led to a process of change in the traditional institutions and learning. Consequently, Sanskrit literature entered a new phase with the rise of modern European influence.

Sanskrit literature has always moved with the times, though traditional types of works have also been composed and are continued to the present day. In the beginning of the 19th century, there had been Sanskrit histories on the British conquest of India : Āngreja - Chandrikā (1801), Itihāsa - tamomaṇi (1813), as also panegyrics in honour of the British rulers; writing of histories of India in Sanskrit has continued upto the present day; some histories are: Jarmanī - Kāvya (Leipzig, 1913) by śyāmkumāra Tagore; Bhāratānu - Varṇana by T.Ganapati Shastrī; Bharata Saṅgraha by Kāvyakaṇṭham Gaṇapati śastrī ; Āṅgla-Sāmrājya by Rāja Rāja Varma ; Bhāratetivṛitta - Sāra by Lakshmīnātha śāstri ; Bhāratīyam Itivṛittamittam by Rāmāvatāra śarma, Āṅgla-Jarrmanī yuddha Varṇana (account of the First World War 1914-18), Krāntivīranāmadbhutakatāḥ (dealing with the heroes of 1857 freedom struggle); Krānti-yuddha (1957) by Vāsudēva Shastri Bagewadikar ; Bhāratarya - Saṁskṛitiko-nidhi by Ramji Upādhyaya, Susaṁhata - bhāratam (1965) by pullela Rāmachandrudu, Bhāratāyaṇa (1968, History of India upto king Harshavardhana) and Bhāratīya - congressetihāsa (1964) by Dinesh Prasād pāṇḍey, Kāśmīretihāsah (a history of Kashmir, 1969) by Hanumataprasād śastri, Bhāratetihāsa (Vol. 1, 1970) by Indra Vidyāvāchaspati.

Those who wrote in the traditional style are : Achyuta rāya Modak (early 19th century), author of some 30 works, Mudumbai Venkaṭarāma Narasimhācharya (1842-1928) author of 114 works, Kerala varma Valiya koil Tampurān (1845-1915) called 'Kerala Kālidāsa' who composed 37 works, Bhaṭṭa śri Narāyaṇa śāstri (1860-1911) author of 92 dramas, Mēdhaśrī Narayaṇa śāstri (1882-1932) author of 108 works, which included 24 plays, Kunnikuṭṭan Tampuṛan (1865-1913) Called 'Kerala Vyāsa', who apart from translating the whole of Mahābhārata into Malayalam in a short period, wrote Sanskrit dramas, stotrās, lyrics and biography of śaṇkarachārya, Madhu-sūdana śarma, author of 108 works, Sri Upanishad Brahmendra Saraswati, who wrote Sanskrit commentaries, on the 108 Upanishads, Ānanda charaṇa, Kāvya kanṭtham Gaṇapati śastri and Mathurānātha equally prolific and the poetess Triveṇi (1817 – 83), the foremost among women contributors.

On realization of the glorious heritage of their country, poems in glorifications of Bhārata Māta and other patriotic poems were composed and printed in almost every Sanskrit journal and their number is quite large; some longer poems are by M.K.Tātācharya, S.T.G.Varadācharī, Kapāli śāstri, M.V.Subramanya Iyer, Rāmā RāI etc.

One of the favourite themes of the Sanskrit poets and writers is works on the lives and activities of political leaders. Bālagaṅgādhar Tilak is the subject of many works: Tilaka - Yaśorṇava in 12,000 verses by M.S.Aney, Tilaka Charitra a prose biography by Chitale, a biography of Vāsudeva śāstrī Bāgewadikar, a biography by K.S.Nāgarājan Sri Lokamānya charitam (1970) by V. Sūrya nārayaṇa śastrī, and Sri Lōkmānya - Smṛiti, a drama by S.B. Velankar, Biographies of C.F.Andrews, Madan Mohan Mālavīya, Rājendra Prasad (Rajendra praśasti by Vishnukāntha Jhā) Vallabhabhai patel and S. Rādhakrishnan were written by Bhikshārāma, K.S.Nagarajan, Somayāji etc.

Mahātmā Gandhī, his ideas and his satyāgraha movement are, however, the subjects of many works: Satyāgraha – gita (paris, 1932), and Uttara - satyāgraha – gita(1949) by Kshamā Rao, Bhārata -- Pārijāta an epic on Gāndhiji by Bhāgavadacharya, śri Gāndhi – charitam (1930) by Chārudeva Shāstrī, Suvarṇa - bindu (1951) by B.Ch. Chhābra, Gāndhī sūkti - muktāvalī (1957) by C.D.Deshmukh, Gāndhī - gītā by A.V.Kāṇe, Satyāgraḥa - nīti - Kāvya by Satyadeva Vasishṭha , Satyāgraḥa – Katha by pāṇḍuraṅga śāstri, Gāndhī - sūtras by D.S.śarma, śrimad – Gāndhi – Charitam by Sādhu śaraṇa Misra, Gāndhī - gaurava (1969) by Rāmachandra shukla, śri Gāndhīgaurvam Kāvyam by śivagovinda Tripāthi. On Gāndhī’s assassination, several elegies and longer poems were composed: śoka-śloka-śataka (1953) by Badarīnātha Jhā, Mahātma - nirvāṇa (1954) by K.R.Nair, Bhārata - Bhāgya – Viparyaya by K.S.Krishṇamūrti śastri, Mahātma – Vijaya by K.L.V.śastri, poems by Sudhākara and by others.

Mahātma Gāndhī’s autobiography was translated into Sanskrit under the title 'Satyaśōdhana' (1965) by H.Nāgappa Sāstri.

Subhās Chandra Bose, Jawāharlāl Nehru and Indira Gandhi are the subjects of many works: On Subhās Chandra Bose are : Suchāsha – Charitam, a poem in 16 cantos by Chhatre, Subhāsha – gauram (1968) by D.C.Datta, a special poem by Lakshmīnārayaṇa Shanbhogue, Subhāsa – Charita (in prose) by Prēmaśhankara Misra (1967).

On Nehru are: śri Nehru Charitam by Brahmānanda śukla, Javāhara – digvijaya by śyāmavarṇa Dvivedi, Javāhara – Chintan (1966) by S.B.Velankara, Nehru charitam by Vishnu Mitra, Jawahara - taraṅgini by Warn̄ekar and Madhubāla on Nehru in Sanskrit literature (1974). On Indira Gāndhi are : Indira – Vijaya prasasti - śataka (1971 – 72) a eulogy by Hazarīlāla śastri, Indira-Vijaya by N.A.Venkataratnam, Indira-vaibhava by Vighneśvara śarma and Indira Charitam by Vishnu Mitra.

Vinoba Bhāve’s mission is the subject of 'Bhūdāna yajña – gatha' by Gaṇapati Shankara shukla, while Ramesh Chandra Shukla has composed a poem on Lāl Bahādur Shāstrī.

Apart from works on individual leaders, there are works like: "Rāṣtra - Sabhāpati – Gaurava" (1938) describing all the congress presidents, written by Lakshminārayana Shanbhogue and Bhāratīya - deśabhakta – Charitam (1952) by K.S.Nagarajan on Indian patriots. There are also some national and patriotic poems and dramas by Mathurānātha, prabhu Datta śastri, Rāmakrishna Bhat, Viśveshvara, Vidyābhūshaṇa etc.

On Saints and Reformers etc: Accounts of saints, reformers and scholars have also been dealt with frequently in prose and verse. Of Buddha: Buddha Charitāmrata (1922) by Alamelamma, Siddhārtha Charitam by Veerendra Bhattacharya ; Of Āṇḍāl (1947) by K.S.Nāgarājan, of Vālmīki by Kāsī Krishnamacharya, of her scholar - father by kshama Rao, Prose biographics of Vallabhacharya and Rāmadāsa by Śripāda śāstri Hasurkar, Of Nṛisimhabhārati Svāmi by Raja Vallabha sāstri, of five leading Mahāmahōpādhyāyas (1928) by Nārayana śastri Khiste and of the two Carnatic musician – saints, Tyāgarāja and Muttusvāmi Dīkshitar by Sundareśa śarma and Rāghavan.

Of the new religious leaders and reformers, Dayananda Saraswati is the subject of several poems and Mahākavyās: Dayananda – digvijaya (1910) by Akhilā - nanda Sharmā, Dayānanda prabhava by Vāmanacharya, Dayānanda – digvijaya (1938) by Mēdhavrata, Aryōdaya kāvya (1952) by Ganga prasad Upādhyaya, Municharitam by Dilīpadatta śastri, Dayānanda Caritāmrutam by Vidyandhi, Works on Ramakrishna paramahamsa : a prose biography (1937) by panca pāgēśa śastri, Ramakrishnāmrata by other Unni Nambudripād, Rāmakrishnā - Sahasra - nāma - stōtra (1950) by Rāma krishan Bhatt, On Vivekananda: Vivēkānanda – Charitra (1947) by K.S.Nāgarajan, Vivekanandavijaya by Warn̄ekar.

On Ramaṇa Maharashi’s teachings: Ramanagīga by Kāvya Kanṭham Gaṇapati śāstri, On Narayana Guru: (a religious leader of kerala) śri - Nārayaṇa – Vijaya (1971) a Mahakāvya in 21 cantos by Balarāma panikkar, śriguru - gīta (1977), on the life of Vāgbhaṭānanda and a Mahākāvya on Nṛisiṁhabhārati svāmī of śṛingēri (1936) by Rājavallabha śāstry.

There are works on Jesus Christ: eg. Yiśu – charitam by śri Nīlakaṇtha śāstri, Krisṭu - Bhāgavatam by Devassia, On Mohammed: Viśuddha - Nabī - Charitam by K.S. Nilakanṭha Unni and Girigīta (based on the sermon on the mount) by K.P. Urmese.

In the early 20th century, reacting against the new movements in the social, religious and philosophical fields, the orthodox Hindus wrote many dissertations against sea-travel, post-puberty marriage, etc - the prominent being Abdhi-nau-yānamīmāṁsa (1903) by kāśi śeshavenkaṭachala śāstrī, Vivāha - Samaya - Mīmāṁsa - Abdhiyāna - Vimarśau (1913) by N.S.Ananth Krishna śastri, Ṛitumati - Vivāha – Vidhi nishedha - pramaṇan, by P.Gaṇapati śāstri but there were others, who welcomed the reforms. Bāla - Vivāha - Chandrodaya (1905) by Ayodhyā prasada, Advocates re-marriage of Child-widows. The outstanding works of this class are: Mānavadharma - sāra by Bhagwān and Viśveswara - Smṛiti by Viśveśvaranātha Reu.

Poetry:

On the model of the western minor poems, a good number of minor poems have been composed, which have appeared in Sanskrit magazines or in separate collections. Such poems are either adaptation from English (Shakespeare, Wordsworth, Shelley, Browning etc) or are original; the original poems are on every conceivable topic: nature, seasons, love, contemporary problems or are permeated with devotional fervour or national feeling etc.

f) Plays: (Drāmas) :

Besides Bhaṭṭa śri Nārayana śāstri, who wrote 92 plays and Medhaśri Nārāyaṇa śāstrī, the author of 108 works, which included 24 plays,the other dramatists, who wrote on traditional themes are: Jaggu Vakuḷa - bhushaṇa- the author of Prasanna kaśyapīya (1951) in which Dushyanta and śakuntala, along with young bharata, pay a visit to Kaṇvās Āśrama, Mahālinga śāstri, the author of several plays, eg. Pratirāja sūyam (on Duryodhana’s Rajasūya) and Kali prādurbhāva. Mathura prasad Dikśita (Virapratāpa Naṭaka, 1937), Mūla śankara Māṇika lāla yājñika (author of three historical plays on Rāṇā pratap, śivāji and Pṛithvirāj Chauhān), Kshmā Rao on Bāla Vidhavā, Katudvai pākaj, among the shorter plays, one-act plays, Prahasanas, radio plays and dramatic dialogues on variety of themes, all of contemporary and social interest.

The prominent dramatists are: Tampi, Kshmā Rāo, S.K.Ramanatha śastrī, K.L.V. śvstrī, Y.Mahalinga śastri, K.R.Nair, S.B.Velankar etc.

g) Stories:

There have been good attempts of retelling of puranik episodes and presentation of numerous fables and popular tales in simple and easy prose:

P. śivaramśāstrī’s charita – ratnavali (2 pts on subjects from classical works and epics and puraṇas), Viśvāmitra (Trivandrum, 1936) by N.Nilakanta pillai, saḿskrita gadyāvali by P.V.Kāṇe, Katha ratnakara by M.Thirunarayana Iyangar etc.

h) Travelogues:

Travel accounts have been published from time to time in Sanskrit journals, but there have been attempts in the book form as well. Of these, some works are: Setu - yātra - varṇana by T.Gaṇapati śastrī, Tribilvadala – Champu (1937) (on all India tour) by S.P.Bhaṭṭacharya, Thaideśa - Vilāsam and śarmaṇya Deśaḥ Sutarām Vibhāti, both by Satyavrat Shāstrī.

Thus, Sanskrit is very rich in its literature right from the Vedic age to the modern age. Sanskrit literature contains many varieties like epics, Dramas, Champu Kāvyas, Short stories, Travelogues etc.

3. Poetics and literary criticism:

a. History:

From the very beginning, Sanskrit was the language of educated people. It is claimed that Sanskrit was the language of Communication in those days, perhaps it was only among the elite people called 'Sisṭās'. During the period of Pāṇini(5th century B.C) also Sanskrit was spoken by the elite and ordinary people spoke a variety of Prākrit called Ardhamāgadhi or so. Secondly, women and other Lower caste people were prohibited from speaking in Sanskrit. In Kālidāsā’s drama, we notice that kings and other male members speaking in Sanskrit and queens and other women replying in prākrit . This is the main reason we do not find Sanskrit poetess, or women epic writers or drāma writers.

b. Movement:

In the modern period, we find some movement in the literary activities in Sanskrit. Among them, names like Triveṇi (1817 to 83) was the foremost; among women contributers, Kṣama Rao’s Uttara -Satyāgraha - gīta, Ālamēlammā’s Buddha - Charitāmrata (1922) are worth noting.

C. Resources:

(1)	An Encyclopedia of Indian literature (Sanskrit, pāli, prākrit and Apabhramsa) by Ganga Ram Garg.
(2)	History of Classical Sanskrit literature by A.B.Keith.
(3)	History of Sanskrit literature by S.Sampat Aiangar. 

Literary Criticism:

Sanskrit had good number of literary critics from the very beginning. Kāshmīr plays an important role in the area of literary criticism. Ananda Vardhana’s Dhvanyālōka, Rajasēkhara’s Kavyameemamsa, ksemendra’s 'Aaucitya Vicār Charca', Kuntaka’s 'Vakrokti jīvita', Mammaṭa’s kāvya prakāśha are some of the works on literary criticism. Authors lived between 9th to 11th century A.D.

Even earlier to Ānanda Vardhana Bhāmaha’s 'Kāvyālankāra', Rudrata’s ‘Kāvya lankara’, Vāmana’s Kāvyālankāra sūtra Vratti are important who lived from the beginning upto 9th century A.D.

From11th century to 17th century some scholars on literary criticism are: Hēmachandra’s Kavyānuśāsana, Vvghbaṭa’s Vāghbhaṭalankāra and Kāvyvnuśāsana, etc.

4. Rebel literature:

In Sanskrit, we do not find any literature called Rebel literature.

a) Dalit literature:

Not found

b) Feminist literature Resources.

Not found

5. Awards/Awardees:

Note: Information to be collected from state and central governments. It will be added after getting the information.

6. Agencies:

Note: Information has to be collected.

7. Translation:

In classical Sanskrit, we do not find translation from other languages to Sanskrit. But in the modern period, we find that, as explained by Ganga Ram Garg, Novels: This class has been enriched by way of translations and adaptations from Bengali (especially the works of Bankim Chandra Chatterji), from English (mainly based on Shakespeare’s works).

Translations and Adaptations from other languages:

1) L1 – L2 : Sanskrit to other languages:

Many Sanskrit works have been translated from Sanskrit to other languages. Under this we can find Vēdas, epics and other materials were translated into German language and English language by many scholars.

Kālidāsa’s ‘Abhijñāna śākuntala’ is translated into many European languages. Thus, Bhāsā’s Dramas, works of other poets are translated into other languages.

Similarly, works of Sanskrit are translated into other regional languages of India like, Hindi, Bengali, Kannada, Tamil, Malayalam, Telugu etc.

b) L2 to L1 : Other languages to Sanskrit :

"Sanskrit has always kept relations with the literatures of other languages and has imbibed the best from them by rendering them into Sanskrit". The chief works translated from Tamil are:

(1) Tirukkural by Appā Vājpeyin (1927), Shankar Subramanya śāstri and by Srīrama Desikan.

(2) Vaishṇavite Canonical hymns of the Alwars (1930) by T.Narasimha Iyengar, and by Vēnkata Ramaṇa Charya.

(3) Kamban’s Rāmāyaṇa by S.Nilakanṭha śastrī

(4) śilapadikāram by C.Narayana Nair (1955)

From Telugu to Sanskrit:

(1) The famous śataka – poems and other poems by SIG. Varadāchāriar and G.V.Sitapati.

(2) The romance ‘Kalapūrnōdaya’ by Mallikarjuna Rao and by S.Sūryanārāyana śāstri.

(3) The Manucharita by Dikshitulu. S. Sūryanārayana śastrī.

From Malayalam to Sanskrit:

(1) Works of the three Malayalam poets, Ullor parameshwara Aiyer, Vallathol Nārayana Menon and Kumāran Asan by Ramaṇa Nambootiri.

(2) Drama -'Sandhyā' by Srikrishna śarma.

From Kannada to Sanskrit:

(1) Purandara - Vāṇi by K.T.pandurangi.

From Marāthi to Sanskrit:

(1) Jñāneśvari by sakhārāma śastrī Bhāgvata.

(2) Novel Balidāna by Latkar śastrī.

From Bengali to Sanskrit:

(1) Mēghanāda Vadha by Nityagopāla Vidyāvinod (1954)

(2) The Shorter Prose works of Tagore by Phaṭikalāla Dās.

(3) Kapāla - kuṇḍala of Bankim by Haricharaṇa Bhattacharya (1926) as also Bankims other novels by śrisaila Tātācharya and others.

(4) Gitanjali of Tagore by N.Gopāla Pillai.

From Hindi to Sanskrit:

(1) Bihāridāsā’s Satasāi by Mathuranātha and by Prem Narayana Dvivedi (1970)

(2) Tulsidasa’s Ramacharita Mānasa by Tiru Venkatacharya.

(3) Jaya śankara prasāda’s 'Kāmāyani' by Bhagavaddatta śāstrī (1960-61)

From Urdu to Sanskrit:

(1) Ghālib’s poems by Kalanātha śastri and by puspa.

(2) Rubaiyāt of omar Khayyam by Haricharana Bhattacharya.

(3) Alibāba and forty thieves by G.K.Modaka (1934).

(4) Allaudin and the wonderful lamp of Gulistān by R.V. Gokhale (1935).

(5) 5 Chapters of Karān by gunde Rao Harkare (1945).

(6) Arabian Nights by Lakshmaṇa Sāstry.

From Pāli to Sanskrit:

(1) Milindapañha by Vidhusēkhara Bhattacharya.

From Russian to Sanskrit:

Tolstoy’s stories by Bhagiratha prasad Tripāthi (1970).

From German to Sanskrit:

(1) Goethe’s Faust by S.N. Tadpatrikar.

(2) Lessing’s Emilia Galotti by Shāma śāstri.

From English to Sanskrit:

(1) Goldsmith’s Deserted village by Appā śarmā (Dharwar 1915).

(2) A Mid Summer Night’s Dream by R.Krishnamacharya and by Gunde Rao Harkare.

(3) Hamlet by Sukhamoy Mukherjee (1971).

(4) All the Plays of Shakespeare by Ananta Sharma Tripāthi.

(5) Comedy of Errors by Sriśaila Dīkshitar.

(6) Othello by Rajarāja Varma.

(7) Lamb’s Tales from Shakespeare by M.Venkataramanacharya.

(8) Tempest by Keśava śarma (1967).

Thus, many works were translated into Sanskrit from other languages.

C. Resources:

i.   Literary and Non-literary
ii. Terminologies
iii. Major works and writers.

Shall be given in the Bibliography and References.