X. CULTURE

A. Linguistic expression of culture

1. Classifier Systems

For the domestic group called Kinship, Meiteis reckon relationship both through affinal and consanguineal relationship. Manipuri word for kin is m∂ri m∂ta and the relationship m∂ri-m∂ta thokn∂b∂ literally means, to have relationship.

Schematically, there are two types of kinship ( M∂ri-M∂t∂)

	1. Luhoŋl∂g∂ thokn∂b∂ m∂ri (affinal relation)
	2. i-gi  m∂ri l∂in∂b∂  (Consanguineal relation)

Meitei kinship is classified at the kin system (Yek-salai), then at lineage (Sag∂i) and finally at the family level (imuŋ m∂nuŋ)

	i.e. 	Yek-Salai			‘clan’ 
		Sag∂i (Sag∂I- n∂t∂i)		‘lineage’
		imung m∂nuŋ		‘family’

The bulk of Meitei population is divided into seven clans, viz- maŋaŋ ,luwaŋ,Khum∂n, ∂ŋom, moir∂ŋ, kh∂b∂-ŋ∂nb∂ , and s∂l∂ŋ l∂ish∂ŋthem .Under which there are many s∂gei. However, Manipuri Brahmins (Meitei Bomon) do not fall under the rubic of yek -s∂l∂i. Following is the lineage wise distribution of Meitei clans.

Number of Yeks that exist in a particular salai :

	1. mangang / Ningthouja	-116 lineage
	2. Luwang 			-45   lineage
	3. Khuman			-100 lineage
	4. Angom 			-45   lineage
	5. Moirang 		-55 lineage
	6. Khaba nganba		-20 lineage
	7. Salang leishangthem	-44 lineage

There are 49 Brahmin yumnaks and about 40 Muslim Yumnaks. They are beyond the rubic of Meitei yeks.

2. Kinship Organisation and Terminology:

The kinship terms in Meitei are unilineal, patrilineal and patrilocal. Meitei kinship terms are classificatory with an exception of some descriptive terms. There are only four descriptive kin terms in Manipuri. They are:

	1. ima    		‘mother’
	2. ipa 		‘father’
	3. iku/ikubok	‘father-in-law’, and
	4. inem/inembok	‘mother-in-law’

Other kinship terms denoting all other relations are classificatory in nature. One important feature to be noted in Meitei Kinship is that the term of reference as well as the term of address is different in accordance with the sex of the ego in certain terms. Following are the list of kinship terms in Meitei.

3. Body Parts:

4. Color Terms

Meiteis have good taste for colour. Meitei women are basically weavers and are crazy about designs and new charming colours. Women would identify herself with many colours. Following terms signify different colours:

5. Pronouns

Manipuri pronouns are of three kinds – Singular, Dual and Plural. First person and third person do not have a distinction between formal and informal. Only the second person pronoun has got formal variety.

      Manipuri personal pronouns:
 			Singular		Dual		Plural
     	1st person		∂i/∂ihak		ibani		∂ikhoi
    	2nd person	n∂ŋ		n∂bani		n∂khoi
   	3rd person		ma/m∂hak		m∂bani		m∂khoi

Manipuri reflexive pronouns are formed by the addition of - sam∂k to the basic personal pronoun –

		isam∂k		‘myself’
		n∂sam∂k		‘yourself’
		m∂sam∂k		‘himself’

Manipuri singular personal pronouns, indicates orientation of - sam∂k to the basic personal –

	∂iŋonda	  	‘to me’		∂iŋond∂gi		‘from me’
	n∂ŋonda	 	‘to you’		n∂ŋond∂gi		‘from you’
	m∂ŋonda	 	‘to him/her’	m∂ŋond∂gi		‘from her/him’

Personal pronouns used in polite situation:

There are commonly two ways of using personal pronouns in Manipuri, viz., in polite situation and in general context. The personal pronoun in polite and respected manner is adom ‘you’. E.g. adom ca thakpibra? ‘May I know whether you will have tea?’

6. Family Organisation and Social Stratification

Family Organisation

Family is a smallest unit of the society. The father is the head of the family. He has power over his wife, children and servants or inferiors of the family. The sons, after getting marriage, can separate from the joint family and establish a family of their own and become householder on their own right. A girl after marriage is sent to her husband’s house where she hopes to live for the rest of her life.

A woman has to submit to the authority of her husband. This is the case as long as her husband is alive. After the death of husband, the wife has two options. She can either stay back at her husband’s house by supervising the property of her late husband or she can go to her parental home.

In the past, father had wide control over his children. He had the power to expel sons from home or exile them to another country. The high power of the head of the family over his wife and children shows the less power of the state. However, this system has almost disappeared in this modern era.

Meitei family is patriarchal and patrilocal. Newly married couple usually live with the groom’s parents. This usually results in an extended family. It is a usual practice in Meitei society that the newly married couples stay with parents until another new bride arrives in the family. However, if they have mutual understanding no new and separate kitchen is established and they remain to stay together under one head. They co-operate in all the possible domains. Regarding inheritance in early times, Meiteis follow the system of ultimo geniture. However, in present day, the practice is not in existence. As a tradition, sons inherit their parent’s property equally while girls inherit nothing. When a girl marries, she gets some property in the name of ∂wunpot, which literally means ‘gifts given at the time of marriage’. Unmarried and divorcees (women) are allowed to have a piece of land in their natal home to construct a house to stay. In a family, father is accorded respect by all its members. Reciprocally he looks after the comfort and welfare of all the family members. Avoidance relationship is maintained only between the elder brother-in-law and the bride, and the bride and her father-in-law. In Meitei society, elder-sister-in-law is allowed to establish a jovial relationship with her husband’s younger brother.

Social Stratification

The basic unit of the Manipuri society was, as it is now, is the family. The father is considered the head of the family and he is called the householder. Polygamy was in vogue in the early Manipuri society. But, the majority of the people were monogamous. Polygamy had its merits in the ancient time in Manipuri society. Male children were taken as very great. Men were needed to run the affairs of the state and to defend its frontiers against the aggression of the neighboring regions. They also protected their province from the depredations, wild animals like tigers and elephants. Women did household duties including arduous like husking rice. However, men had to do hazardous and laborious works like cutting woods, tilling ground for planting, mowing thatch in the thick grass jungle for roofing the house etc.

Polyandry was not in vogue. It is something unthinkable in the Manipuri society. Every clan in the society was exogamous. A man belonging to a clan could not marry a girl within the same clan. This was highly tabooed. This system still exists in the Modern Manipuri society. Slavery was also in vogue as professionalism. As time passed on, slavery system disappeared from the Manipuri society.

Though present day Meitei society is devoid of any clear-cut stratification and structure, Meitei society historically was stratified, and the people were hierarchically organized. Meiteis were classified into three major groups below which lie the Lois or the subjugated group and the Meitei Pangals. Brahmins form another group distinct from the common manfold of the Meiteis. With the introduction of democratic form of government under Indian Union, the monarchy and its hierarchical organization structure are no more elaborate. However, traces of this hierarchical organization are still visible in language usage. The groups who were graded in a hierarchy are

	1. the rajkumars	- 	niŋthemca
	2. the l∂im∂ 	-			
	3. the Meitei hao aramba	
	4. thloy

The niŋthemca are the direct male descendants of the, niŋth∂u ‘king’ and l∂ima are female descendants of the king marring to commoners. There still is one-fourth category of the people called Loi ‘the subjugated ones or the one who pays tax to the king/conquered people’ .The language used to niŋthemca is a bit elaborate as compared to leima, and there are certain words reserved for them. Commoners, lois and leimas mainatain a common vocabulary with a mere difference in address system. However, the point to be noted here is, this hereditary group membership system got eroded in the present day Meitei society leading into a generalized form with a limited use of high ordered works.

7. Address & Reference System

Forms of addressing

The younger ones cannot address the elder members by their names. The wide form of addressing among the people in Manipur society provides information that they exhibit so much mutual respect with each other even in the family circle. The sense of courtesy and politeness prevail even to this day. In every family, there is well mannered system of addressing people, for example, among the elders, youngsters, friends, youngsters to their elders and elders to their younger ones. They may be explained as under:

	ic∂u ~ iyamb∂, tach∂u ~ tad∂,tamo, tamoch∂u ‘elder brother,’ 
	inao ~ ibuŋŋo, ∂ŋaŋ ‘younger brother,’
	iche ~ cheche, ‘elder sister,’
	ic∂l, ibemm∂ ‘younger sister,’
	addressed as ibung ‘elder brother’ by the females to their elder brother,
	addressed as ipwa ‘younger brother’ by the females to their younger brother, 
	addressed as ip∂n ~ ip∂l ~ ip∂ndh∂u, babach∂u, pabuŋ ∂h∂n ~ h∂l,to the father’s elder brother,
	addressed as  khura ~ ikhura, iton, kaka to the father’s younger brother,
	to  father’s elder sister addressed as ine ~ nene, ‘aunty,’ 
	mother’s elder sisters addressed as imabok ~ imandh∂u ‘aunty,’ 
	indomca  ‘aunty’ for younger ones.

Father’s elder brother’s wife is addressed as imandh∂u ~ imabok and younger brother’s wife as indomca ~ indon , mother’s sisters are also addressed in the same way.

The husbands of mother’s sisters are addressed in the same way as one addresses father’s brothers. Whereas, mamm∂ ~ mammo is an address made to ‘uncle’ i.e., to father’s sister’s husbands and mother’s brothers.

Father’s and mother’s father are addressed as ipu ~ ipubok ~ ibubok ~ pupu ~ idh∂u ‘grand father’ and whereas father and mother’s mother are addressed as ibok ~ abok ~ ibenpok ~ bobok ‘grand mother’.

The common form of addressing under friend circle includes:

m∂rup,bhai, bondhu, itao,itaobi,immann∂b∂ ‘friends’ (among the male), ita, imman∂bi ‘friend’ (among the female).

For instance, the royal families and their bloods, in the medieval and beginning of the modern times, have been using different forms of addressing among themselves and other people. The elder brothers are addressed as yambuŋ, taibuŋŋo, and uncles as sanakhiya. The females are addressed with the suffixes –si or sij∂. For example, icem-si ~ icem-sij∂ ‘elder sister,’ ima-si ‘mother,’ ine-si ‘aunty,’ ∂bok-si ‘grand mother’etc.

8. Politeness Expression

Meiteilon (lit, the language of Meitei) has an elaborate system of expressing politeness. Meitei speakers are never allowed to speak to one partner without accounting the variables of age, sex and related socio-economic status of the interlocutors. Polite forms are manifested in the following ways—

	a) Use of polite personal pronoun 
	b) Use of different polite verb suffixes
	c) Use of social titles
	d) Use of cultivated variety of nouns and verbs
	e) Using indirect question for imperatives

a) Meitei has second person polite personal pronoun ∂dom, and som, to be used particularly to the strangers of about the same age and status.

b) Meiteilon polite verbal suffixes are classifiable into four groups

	i. Verb	+	-c∂/-j∂		+	aspect
	ii. Verb	+	-bi/-pi		+	aspect
	iii. Verb	+	-si marker
	iv. Verb	+	-bi		+	-si marker

	For example - 	cab∂		‘eat’		c∂tp∂		‘go’
	i.	ca	+	-j∂	+	- i.	‘(I) eat it 	(humble form)’
 		c∂t	+	-j∂	+	- i.	‘(I) go 	(humble form)’
	ii.	ca	+	-bi	+	 -yu	‘(you) please eat it.’
		c∂t	+	-pi	+	 -yu	‘(you) please go.’
	iii. 	ca    	+	-si			‘please have it’
      		c∂t	+	-si			‘please go’
	iv. 	ca	+	-bi	+	 -si	‘(please have it)’
		c∂t	+	-pi	+	- si	‘(you) please go’

c) Under the rubric of social titles comes the usage of appropriate kin terms to elders and the use of social titles along with the appropriate verb forms. Meitei social laws state that the elders should not be addressed using personal name, rather they should be addressed using an appropriate kin term. Otherwise, that is not a polite form of speech. Younger folks are to be addressed with endearment forms like ibungo for male and ibemma for female. Schematically -

             
ibemma /ibuŋo (kin term) 	+	personal name 	+	V (appropriate one)

Example: 		ibemma sanatombi lakpir∂mi      ‘Sanatombi had come. (Polite)’
		(Sanatombi is younger to the speaker).	
		tamo gopal lengbirakk∂ni	‘tamo Gopal will come (elder brother)’

These forms are counted as polite when compared to –

		sanatombi lakl∂mmi		‘sanatombi had come’
		gopal lakk∂ni 		‘gopal will come’

Social titles in Meitei include the following heads –

a) Use of –si, ibema/ibuŋo, aŋaŋ as an additional marker to the kin term (si and ibung/ibema) and as to the personal name.

	Example: 	
	Iton  + si ↝ itonsi	‘uncle (polite)’ ima 	+  si ↝ itonsi	‘mother (polite)’ 
	tad∂  	+         	ibung	↝ 	taybungo ‘brother (polite)’
	ice	+	ibema	↝ 	icema ‘sister (polite)’
	tad∂  	+         	aŋaŋ 	↝ 	taŋaŋ ‘brother’ (polite)
	ipu  	+         	aŋaŋ 	↝ 	ipuŋaŋ ‘grandfather’(polite)

 * aŋaŋ basically mean the spouses of leima . 

b) Use of ∂igya , and th∂urani for male and female Brahmins respectively .

	Example :  	∂igya  caub∂	‘chaoba of Brahmin family’
	      		Th∂urani tombi	‘Tombi of Brahmin family’

c)Use of s∂na for ningthemca and bamon ibungo/ibema for the younger persons is a rule in Meitei social set up. (This title may or may not be used with personal name )

	Example: 
	ibuŋo s∂na		‘younger male of niŋthemca group’
	s∂na ibema	‘younger female of niŋthemca group’
 	s∂na phandeŋ	‘phandeŋ of niŋthemca group’
	∂ŋ∂u s∂na		‘angom of niŋthemca group’
	*bamon ibuŋo	‘younger male of bramin family’
	*bamon ibema	‘younger female of bramin family’
	[*bamon is a corrupt form of Brahmin]

Still there is one more social title pertaining to hereditary group membership i.e. s∂n∂khya (a contracted form of s∂n∂ khya kha (lit) ‘below your majesty’s feet), which is rarely used in present day context.

iv) Use of cultivated variety of nouns and verbs: Manipuri has got a cultivated variety of speech form, manifested in both nominal and verbal category. These noun and verb forms are called thaugallon (lit) ‘language use in attending the kings. Following are some of the examples.

(Noun)

(Verb)

v) Using of indirect question is a strategy used by the Meitei speakers in imperative forms, making the statement rather polite than the usual forms.

	Example : 
	1. Somd∂  ∂mukt∂ laku		‘Come on this side”
	2. Somd∂ ∂mukt∂ lakpiyu		‘please come on this side’
	3. Somd∂ ∂mukt∂ lakpiger∂		‘would you pleasure come on this side’

9. Greetings and Departure Terms

Greeting:

Meitei social custom does not have a word equivalent to n∂m∂skar, a pan Indian feature. However, in history what one observes is, whenever the king is to be addressed, the person will greet the king by saying – s∂n∂ khuya khad∂ punemj∂riye n∂nayn∂ (lit. your slave is bowing down to your majesty’s feet). Otherwise, he is greeted only by the gesture of bowing down without any word. Next came the stage of reciprocating J∂y j∂y to each other by elderly male folks. Now-a-days people greet each other by words like hi, hello or khuramj∂ri ‘a direct translation of Hindi ‘namaskar’. Meiteis enquire about the person’s concern at the first meeting rather than just greeting. They ask whereabouts about that person. Following are the usual word forms used in the time of meeting friends.

	Words form	Gloss
	Gud morning	Good  morning
	kamdourige	How are you
	kadomdano	Where are you going
	Cak cabirabra	Have you had your meal
	nungairibra		Are you well
	Ana ayek yaodeko	You do not have any ailments

Departure:

Manipuri words used while parting or at departure time are not many in number. They usually seek acceptance from the interlocutionary partner at the time of departure. The following are few of the word forms used at the time of departure.

	Word form	Gloss
	ph∂re ∂dudi, ∂i   your∂ge		‘well then, I will go now’
	C∂tl∂ge ∂dudi			‘then I am going
	kain∂r∂si				‘bye’
	∂muk lakkoko			‘come again’
	h∂yŋ ∂muk theŋn∂rsi			‘let,s meet tommorow’
	sum l∂ih∂ure			I stay here(you go )
	kon∂ ∂muk un∂si/un∂b∂ hayb∂duni	‘let,s meet some other day’
	hall∂mm∂ge			I am going earlier’
	c∂tloko				you go’
					

10. Men’s & Women’s Speech

In Meitei society, men usually dominate and women are considered the subordinate class. Male’s domain is public whereas female’s domain is private. Women are identified either through father or through husband. They take the surname of these two. After marriage, women take the lineage of her husband. However one interesting feature noted in Meitei society is, a woman may remain identified with her paternal lineage and at the same time may be classified as belonging to her husband’s lineage as –

	a) sinam niŋol th∂ba			‘thaba of sinam lineage’
	b) salam oŋbi th∂ba 			‘Th∂ba married to salam lineage’
	may also be written as 
	c) Sinam niŋol s∂lam ongbi th∂b∂		‘Thaba of sinam lineage married to salam lineage’

As a result, of having different sub-culture within the rubic of Meitei social custom, male and female speeches are different in the areas of -

	1. Kinship term usage
	2. Colour term
	3. Frequency of use of polite forms, reduplicated forms
	4. Use of exaggerated forms 
	5. Certain adjectives
	6. Interjections

1. Kinship term usage:

Meitei kinship terms have different words for describing the same kin in accordance with the sex of the ego. As for example, a younger sister of a male is termed as ic∂l whereas the younger sister of a female is inaw.

2. Colour terms:

Manipuri women are very professional in weaving and in skill connected with knitting and embroidery. They need to have different colours to make their designs and pattern perfect. They are capable of handling dyes too. So ultimately, women have a wider range of terms describing different colours, which are seen as one and the same by the males who do not take any interest in such a matter. Following are some of the examples of colour in which the difference in the usage by different sex is found.

	Male term		female term		gloss
	∂s∂ngb∂		Ureŋ			‘see green’
			pankhokla m∂cu		‘bottle green’
			is∂ŋ m∂cu			‘deep green’
			Ten∂wa m∂cu		‘parrot green’
			corphon m∂cu		‘olive green’
			l∂phu m∂yon m∂cu 		‘palest green/light green’
			c∂nd∂n m∂cu		‘light yellow(slightly yellow)
			s∂na phige m∂cu		‘deep yellow’
			th∂mna khenjoŋ m∂cu		‘light green’
			h∂ŋgam m∂ru pokhaib∂ m∂cu 	‘greenish yellow’

3. Use of exaggerated form:

Meitei female use more exaggerated forms and empty morphs are added for this purpose. They are formed to use more reduplicated forms too. Following are the examples.

	Male form		female form		Gloss
	ph∂tte 		ph∂khidr∂ jatni 		‘very bad’
	t∂ub∂ ngami	t∂ub∂ ngamkhrajatni		‘very much capable of doing
	pammi		pamkhr∂jatni		‘like too much’
	h∂ireda		h∂ibireda			‘(you) are quite smart’
	l∂urohe		l∂ubirohe			‘(you) take it (sure)
	Pampkr∂b∂ni	pamj∂khr∂potni		‘(you) like it excessively (sure)
	khaŋiŋda	         	Khaŋkhrapotni		'you know it a good deal’
	Khaŋde		khaŋj∂-lakc∂de		‘(I) do not know it’
	ude		uj∂-lakc∂de		‘(I) do not see it’
	t∂ude		t∂uja-lakc∂de		‘(I) do not do the work’

4. Adjectives:

Meitei women’s adjective is different from those of the males. Following are a few examples:

	Adjective describing male	Adj. Describing female	Gloss
	ŋausin∂b∂			∂kh∂tpi			‘naghty fellow’
	hapu cenb∂					‘dirty fellow’
				c∂raŋ manbi		‘naughty girl’
	iŋ t∂pp∂			moŋ had∂b∂		‘sober’
				hiŋc∂bi			‘nasty fellow’	
	kh∂daŋ k∂nb∂		cing∂nbi			‘talkative person’

5. Interjections:

Meitei female has a narrower domain as compared to their male counterpart. Ultimately their interjections are more numerous than those of the males. Following are some of the examples –

		Male form 		Female form		Gloss
		hi		∂yma/oh  ima		‘oh! Mother!’
				imaipema			‘oh ! mother !’
				∂tca			‘its dirty’
		h∂re h∂re		h∂re h∂re			‘oh! God !’
		∂s/ is 		∂s/is 			‘its unbelievable’
	 			i /i			‘I do not believable it’

11. Naming (Ethnonymy & Exonymy)

Meitei naming practice is based on the indigenous ethnonymic system and the exonym, which are foreign in origin. Both the system is widely prevalent in today’s Meitei social context. Meitei, as a result of wider contact with Indian culture, makes use of Hindi names along with English names like John, Mike, Mary, etc.

Ethnonymy:

Meitei names are based broadly on 5 to 6 categories having distinctive forms. Names in Meitei society are based on the following 6 criteria-

	1. order of  birth 
	2. physical appearance 
	3. quality of a person
	4. mental/ caliber of the person
	5. on abstract grounds
	6. the names of flowers

Examples :

1. order of birth :

	Name 		English equivalents
	iboh∂l		the first male child
	s∂nah∂l		the first male child
	ibocoub∂		the big son
	iboyaima		the next to the first child(male)
	ibeyaima		the next to the first child(female)
	ibemcoubi		a first female child 
	ibemca		the second female child (younger)
	ibetombi		the last female child
	ibotombi		the last male child
	tomba		the last child (male)
	tombi		the last child (famle)

2. Physical appearance :

	Name		English equivalents
	∂pabi		the lean fellow(M/F)
	∂ŋ∂ubi		the fair complexion one (F)
	∂mubi		the dark complexion on (F/M)
	∂yiŋbi		the sober girl
	ph∂j∂bi		the pretty girl
	∂rubi		the clean girl
	t∂thot		the soft & cute girl
	caub∂		the big fellow(M)
	caubi		the big fellow (F) etc.

3. Quality of the persons :

	Name		English Equivalent
	Thoithoi		the best one (M/F)
	th∂ba		(nice as) morning star(F)
	S∂nathoi		the best gold
	Ibemŋusi		the cutiest/sweetest girl
	Laibi		the easy fellow (F)
	thaj∂manbi		beautiful as moon
	linthoiŋanbi	best & able girl
	likla l∂ima		girl like dew
	m∂ŋlem		the one who remains from the grave
	thoibi		the best girl

4. Mental caliber of the person :

	Name		English Equivalent
	th∂uŋamba		the able fellow(M)
	th∂uyangba	the quick person(M)
	l∂mjiŋb∂		the guide (M)
	pakh∂ŋb∂		the one who knows the father
	khagemb∂		the one who conqured khagi(china)
	telh∂ib∂		the one who is smart in archery  etc.	

5. On abstract grounds :

	Name 		English Equivalents
	∂s∂ŋbi		the green colour (F)
	ciŋkh∂i		the direction on which the sun rises (N-W direction)
	ciŋkh∂ithanbi	the one who enlighted the chingkhei (N-W direction)
	ciŋlen		the leader
	maŋgi		the leader
	waŋlen		the one high in mental caliber
	thoinu		the best girl
	noni		the best girl
	pepe		the best girl
	tiŋol∂im∂		the best girl
	thenbi		name of a cute bird
 

6. The names of flowers : (all are female names )

	Name		English Equivalents
	Th∂mbal		lotus
	s∂nar∂I		marigold
	kombir∂i		an irish
	l∂ipakl∂i		a flower
	th∂ro		water lily
	t∂khell∂i		a sweet smelling flower
	th∂b∂ll∂i		lady of the night

Exonymy : Meitei’s accept names from all languages. The names of the children are based on the choice of their parents. Following are few examples:

12. Concepts of Space &Time

Points of compass

M∂it∂is is divided into four main directions such as noŋpok ‘East’, noŋcup ‘West’, v ‘∂waŋ ‘North’ and m∂kha ‘South’ by following the directions of the Sun and Moon. From these four main directions, another six sub-directions has come into existence, viz, Chiŋkh∂i, ‘the direction between East and North’, Moiraŋ Laichi, ‘the direction between the North and the West’, M∂ir∂m, ‘the direction between the West and South’, K∂ubru Laichi, ‘the direction between the South and East’, and remaining two are M∂th∂k ‘Upward’ and M∂kha ‘Downward’ respectively.

According to Meitei concept, c∂hi ‘the year’ is divided into months in accordance with the progress of agricultural operations from which the months take their names. Following is the list of the months –

	1. l∂mda	- the month in which ploughing begins
	2. s∂jibu	-  the month when the mud is as deep as the cow’s horn indicating  the progress in ploughing
	3. kalen	- the month when the heat of the sun dries up the fields
	4. iŋa	- the month when the rain break
	5. iŋen	- the month when the rain water is plenty
	6. th∂wan	- end of transplanting
	7. laŋban	- surmounting of difficulties of cultivation
	8. mera	- beginning of harvesting of early autumn rice 
	9. hiyaŋg∂i	- boat race is held ,and men progress with their harvest.
	10. poinu	- month of new paddy
	11.wakcing- paddy is stored in granaries like hills.
	12. Phairen- the prohibition against taking paddy out of the granary has passed.

Meitei have a legendary story about the naming of the days of the week. It is connected with the sun’s ascendance to the ground. The days of the week are named as –

	1. noŋmaijiŋ 
	2. niŋthoukab∂
	3. l∂ibakpokp∂
	4. yums∂k∂isa
	5. s∂golsen
	6. irai
	7. thaŋj∂

In Manipuri, a day is divided into 31 portions, in accordance with the falling of rays of the sun on specific areas along with some specific moments/incidents happening on that day. They are as follows –

1. Noŋyai			‘midnight’
2. Yenkhoŋ  ∂hanb∂		‘first cock crow’
3. c∂roy khongb∂		‘king- crow call
4. ∂m∂m ∂ngan sinnaba	‘changes from dark to light’
5. ciŋkh∂i hunb∂		‘first light in the east’
6. numit thokp∂		‘sunrise’
7. numit wakhoŋ		‘when the sun can be seen through the lonb∂ foot of the bamboos in front of the house’
8. numit waton lomb∂		‘when the sun tops the bamboos in front of the house’
9. Yumaŋ			‘numit  yuŋb∂ m∂maŋ ‘before midnight’
10. yuth∂k			‘midday’
11. yutuŋ			‘after midnight’
12. numit ph∂klaŋ		‘when the wall is in the shadow’
13. numit maŋgon m∂yai y∂wba	‘when the sun reaches the foot of the Verandah post’
14. numit ukhong ya∂ba 	‘when the sun reaches the foot of the  verandah post
15. numit dari m∂pan y∂wb∂  	‘when the sun reaches the edge of the plinth’
16. numit d∂ri kumb∂		‘when the sun leaves the plinth’
17. numit curi y∂ub∂ 		‘when the sun reaches where the water drops off the cames’
18. numit yuŋb∂ 		‘when the sun is just overhead’
19. numit sum∂ŋ m∂yai y∂ub∂ 	when the shadow of the house reaches between the tulsi plant and the plinth’
20. numit tulsibuŋ y∂wb∂	‘when the shadow of the house reaches tulsi plant’
21. numit yumji tumb∂	‘when the shadow of the  ridge pole is pointed’
22. numit t∂b∂		‘sunset’
23. s∂n kar∂kp∂		‘when the cows come house’
24. ∂m∂mb∂		‘twilight’
25. s∂ndya yac∂ŋb∂		‘evening when the people go into the house’
26. ∂yuk			‘morning’
27. Nuŋthin 		‘daytime’	
28. Numidaŋ wai		‘evening’
29. Numidaŋ/∂hiŋ 		‘night’

13. Myths & Mythology (Including origin of myth)

Mythology is the study of myths and traditional tales, beliefs concerning supernatural as well as natural phenomena of benign or harmful influence. Each and every society builds up their mythology as per the life style, the environment and vegetation around. Meitei myths are numerous and varied, of which many are based on the worshipping of goddesses. Early Manipuri myths were matriarchal and it got changed into patriarchal mythology in later days. Meitei mythology also contains some conflict between two powers, male and female. The identification of goddesses as wives, mother, sister, i.e. a mixture of the existence of both, is visible.

According to Meitei belief there are seven heloys ‘virgin goddesses’ and they don’t have any specific names. They are the one who give all sorts of happiness. They are mothers and also are extremely dangerous. They are also known by the terms lay c∂khetpi ‘the destroyer’ and th∂way lakpi (lit.) ‘who snatches the soul’. They are related with water, and they are known as ir∂ima ‘water goddess’. The l∂ml∂im∂ the goddess whose abode in the empty space or the heloys always remains young and they are never under the control of any God, and have qualities of both good and evil. These seven goddess though identified as a low graded goddess are still relatable to the souls, the shadow and the body and they turn into sar∂m taŋkhul nurabi t∂ret ‘seven Tangkhul women’. Then again in the patriarchal mythology their unified form became noŋth∂ŋl∂im∂ who distract harab∂ ‘the destroyer’ makes a great contribution in the creation of the world. In addition, when l∂isem∂ ∂sib∂ ‘the creator asiba’ went for tour to the world to occupy the throne, they helped pakh∂ŋb∂ the worshiper of mother goddess to know the secret of the throne, making him the king of Gods. Not only this, but they also saved pakh∂ŋb∂ from the rebellion attack of asib∂ by surrounding him and singing ‘∂ugri’. Then they became wives of pakh∂ŋb∂ and became the mother of seven clans. When Meitei population became settled they are worshipped as mother goddess (ima) or the grandmother goddess (ibend∂u) giving different names and allowing different domains to stay. They became khum∂n pokpi ‘mother of khum∂n’ luw∂ŋ pokpi ‘mother of luwang’, m∂ŋ∂ŋ pokpi ‘mother of m∂ŋ∂ŋ, imoinu ∂hoŋbi ‘the goddess of wealth’, l∂im∂ren ‘the supreme goddess’ y∂n∂kh∂ paudabi sayg∂ŋ polibi ‘the messenger goddess’ and the seventh one as ∂sib∂gi layrembi ‘the goddess of death’ staying at the points where the water drops off the caves. Moreover, their unified form is called pithaybi khoŋdraibi, whose abode is on the roof. Further Meiteis also believed that there were four goddesses guarding the four directions of the old palace ‘k∂ŋla. They are:

	1. waŋkhonbi		- guard of western gate
	2. ciŋa lalh∂ibi		- guard of southern gate
	3. tokŋa layrembi		- guard of northern gate
	4. Panthoibi		- guard of eastern gate etc.

There were no temple and the goddesses were worshipped on mounds. According to Meitei myth, the beginning of the world is from underground. As a child is born out from the womb of the mother, mankind has also come out from a place called kh∂mnuŋ ‘a place in underground’ and man after death goes back to this place again and this is the first house of human being. Goddesses related with kh∂mnuŋ are thoŋak lairembi, nuŋthoŋ lairembi and kh∂mnuŋ kikoy l∂wonbi. thoŋŋak lairembi or nuŋthoŋ layrembi is the guard of the door between the world and kh∂mnuŋ, the first one’s abode is on the land. She is an independent goddess, who can control both the khamnung and the world.

14. Belief Systems

Meitei believe in the existence of Soul ‘th∂wai miren’ and the concept of possession of th∂wai miren∂c∂ŋb∂ ‘a good soul’ and get together with the God after death as t∂ib∂ŋpanb∂ mupud∂ h∂inam l∂in∂m oin∂ tinb∂ and the concept of existence of lair∂mlen ‘abode of the God’ forms the basis of Meitei.

Some of the Meitei beliefs are—

1. Beliefs concerning spiritualism –

	a) ph∂tt∂b∂ migi th∂waidi bhut prêt olli  	‘the soul of bad person flies as ghost’
	b) cin thirab∂di jom l∂ibakt∂ lakn∂i	‘Liars have trial in the place of Yama’
	c) ∂phab∂ midi isorn∂ c∂nbi		‘good people are helped by the God’ 

2. Beliefs concerning agricultural process –

a) ph∂u y∂in∂b∂ ph∂k m∂th∂kt∂ sumjit , th∂ŋ, s∂n, hui, h∂udoŋ kar∂kp∂n∂ciŋb∂ t∂ur∂b∂di n∂muŋi.
‘If broom, knife, cow, dog, and cat come up on the mat for thrashing paddy, it is tabooed’
b) numid∂ŋd∂ pot c∂i hekp∂ yade 	‘nothing should be plucked at night from the plant’ 
c) phairen p∂nc∂mid∂ l∂utag∂d∂b∂ni	‘First plantation of paddy should be done on phairen panchami’

3. Beliefs concerning birds and beasts –

	a) l∂mkhun∂ sum∂ŋd∂ lakl∂b∂di sikhr∂b∂ m∂pa m∂pun∂ mabu niŋsiŋi		
	‘If dove comes at the lawn he is being remembered by his forefathers’
	b) nuŋthild∂ hwakn∂ lakn∂ lakn∂ khoŋl∂b∂di m∂du kh∂tt∂b∂ pawni	
	‘If crow cries in the noon it is bad omen’
	c) S∂nd∂ khoŋpakn∂ kauh∂ide 
	‘ Cows should not be kicked’ 

15. Worldview as Reflected in the Lexicon & Syntax

Meitei are the people belonging to Mongolian stalk, having affinity with the people of far-east and South East Asia. Indians follow the social parameters of South East Asia like – high social status of women, complex of beliefs like animism, ancestor worship and reverence of higher status. Meiteis thus proselytized into Hinduism in the 18th century, did not abandon their traditional religion and followed compromised rituals and ceremonies.

Meitei “world view” incorporates the theory of creation and evolution. It states- Almighty ∂tiya guru sid∂b∂ had two sons – S∂nam∂hi and Pakh∂ŋb∂ and S∂nam∂hi created the worldly things. God also produced l∂isirel namuŋbi(s∂kti), nine laib∂ŋth∂u (divine youth) and seven lainura (nymph) to execute his orders. According to Meitei mythology ∂sib∂ created the universe with all its celestial bodies and all worldly things. Lastly, he created man looking at the shadow of his father guru sid∂b∂. In Meitei theory of creation, one goddess noŋthaŋl∂im∂, who is brought out of the naval of guru, is of great importance. As s∂nam∂hi was creating the world, haraba/ Pakh∂ŋb∂ were destroying it on the other side. To stop Pakh∂ŋb∂’s activities, noŋthaŋl∂im∂ was created by God. While these two were conversing, ∂sib∂ completed creating the world with its seven layers. After that s∂nam∂hi became the spiritual king of mankind and P∂kh∂ŋb∂ became the temporal king. He with noŋthaŋl∂im∂ produced descendents and thus the world started. On the other hand, s∂nam∂hi with his mother l∂im∂rel sid∂bi became the protector of life and property of mankind. Thus, Meiteis descended from noŋda lairel pakh∂ŋb∂ who ruled the country in 33 A.D.

16. Proverbs, Idioms & Abuses

Manipuri language has many idioms and proverbs. It covers a wide range of usage with diverse knowledge regarding the matter concerned. Few examples of Manipuri proverbs are –

	1. ∂ŋaŋdi niŋthad∂ kh∂ŋŋi 		‘morning shows the day’
	2. kab∂ m∂tol loml∂g∂ kumb∂ naib∂ni	‘pride has a fall’
	3. n∂han∂ maib∂ sar∂g∂ m∂ŋ th∂lli	‘little learning is a dangerous thing’
	4. h∂wkhib∂ ŋa  caui 			‘to cry cover split milk’
	5. khoŋ cotl∂g∂ cin cotli		‘No pain no gain’
	6. okn∂ nill∂g∂ lamhuin∂ m∂na  thab∂ 	‘to rob peter and pays pane’
	7. l∂iton s∂ru pande	 		‘boneless tongue makes a mistake’
	8. mal∂ŋd∂ ten kapp∂			‘building castle in the air’
	9. mi m∂ca layrunu			‘a chip is tougher than the old block’
	10. ∂sab∂bu ∂sab∂n∂ lok-i		‘diamond cuts diamond’

Some examples of Meitei idioms

17. Indigenous Knowledge System

Meitei people have got numerous manuscripts written in Meitei Mayek. They have well developed knowledge about science and administration with many literatures about different subject matter. Following are their areas of specialization-

There are many manuscripts dealing in each area of concern, describing about the phenomenon. Therefore what can be concluded is Meitei has a rich and varied tradition of knowledge system, not only in scientific areas, but their knowledge was extended to art and aesthetics too. Classic examples of Meitei literature are teŋthab∂ ‘the description of lammitution’ , m∂y∂ŋ ŋamba ‘conquer of Cachar. Kh∂jiŋ mitonb∂ ‘to contemplate with god with patient’ etc. They keep the belief of immortal th∂wai ‘soul’ and they identified l∂ibak (earth), isiŋ(water), m∂y (fire), nuŋsit (air) , ∂tiya (sky) as the basic ingredients of life.

18. Ceremonies-Birth, Naming, Puberty, Marriage, Death

The various ceremonies performed during different stages of a person’s life include birth ceremony, naming, puberty, marriage, and death ceremony.

1. Birth:

After a child is born, the attending maibi ‘the lady attendant comparable to shaman’ cuts the umbilical cord of the mother with the sharp edge of bamboo piece. The placenta will be placed in an earthen pot and later will be buried in a particular place in the house. It is buried in the left side of the house if the baby born is a girl and in the right side if it’s a baby boy. It is buried with ritualistic formalities. A burning piece of pine and smoke of burning khoicu l∂ikham ‘a herb’ and a coin are used for this purpose. A separate hut called waŋgols∂n ‘a hut used for childbirth’ is usually constructed, to avoid pollution, as the home is considered the abode of Gods like s∂nam∂hi, l∂im∂rel imoinu etc. Till the third day a khominbi ‘wet nurse’ is required to feed the child. The sixth day is the day of ipan th∂b∂ ‘swasti puja’. On this day the primal deities of fire, water, air, earth, sun and heaven are worshipped for the long life and prosperity of the child. Offerings are also made to saroys ‘evil sprits’ with rituals. At night ritualistic prayer is done to the grand ancestors, Pithrai khoŋdaibi. Relatives and friends of the family are invited and a small party is held on this day.

2. Naming:

No elaborate naming ritual is observed by the Meiteis. The name of the child is selected by the parents of the child. The name should be given in accordance with the first letter by an astrologer who writes the horoscope of the child.

3. Puberty:

Rituals of adolescence for boys and girls

For boys

Nokun thaŋb∂/Lokun thaŋb∂ (Wearing of sacred threads):

This ceremony (both traditional and religious) is compulsorily done for boys before marriage. This ceremony is also done by the bamons. This is also called Laimiŋ L∂ub∂. After this ceremony, according to the tradition, boys should follow the code of conduct as a male in the society.

For girls

Laimiŋ L∂ub∂:

When a girl attains the age of menstruation, the mother will take her to the temple or will do the puja at home. This is mainly done for fertility and health and this is called Laimiŋ l∂ub∂. After this ceremony, girls should follow the code of conduct as a woman in the society.

However, now-a-days no specific puberty rite is observed by the Meiteis. But as a result of Hindunisation, lukun th∂ŋb∂ ‘wearing of sacred thread’ is performed on boys and l∂iniŋ loub∂ ‘taking of religion’ is performed on girls on their attaining puberty.

4. Marriage:

M∂it∂i marriage system is very ancient and is believed to have started before 300-400 B.C. Now this tradition has been followed with certain modification. From the beginning of the modern civilization, engaged or arranged marriage has been very popular. However, marriage by capture and elopement were in vogue. In this modern civilization these two practices are not seen anymore. Despite, today, arranged and love marriages are prevalent to a large extent. The age for arranged marriage is at average eighteen and above and parents take the initiative in this matter. Bridegroom’s parents seek out a girl of their choice to be their daughter-in-law. Parents take the likes and dislikes of their son into consideration. After this, the parents go with some members of the family to ask the girl. If the girl’s parents show positive attitude, a date will be fixed for the marriage.

No marriage will be held between a boy and a girl belonging to the same yek/s∂lai ‘clan’. The rituals followed in marriage are.

a) waroypot pub∂ - as a token of agreement, fruits, sweets and other things are taken to the bride’s home.

b) h∂iciŋ kh∂rai pub∂ - Seven kinds of fruits arranged on a kh∂rai ‘a thin utensil made of bamboo’ along with other sweets and fruits meant for domestic deity s∂n∂m∂hi , local deities and for people attending the function are taken from groom’s side to bride’s side. This marks the formal agreement of marriage.

c) luhoŋb∂ -It is a formal marriage ceremony. Formal rituals are made elaborately at the residence of the bride. Ancestral deity, local deities, s∂n∂m∂hi are worshipped on this day. Both the bride and groom are ritually sanctified on this day. According to Meitei belief, the groom represents s∂lailel and the bride l∂im∂rel, who will procreate. The groom sits on a platform luhoŋphal on the back side of the mandop ‘ceremony hall’. The bride will go around the groom seven times, and on completion of each round the bride will shower flowers on the head of the groom. On the seventh round, the bride will place garland of kundo flower on the neck of the groom. The groom will place a garland of kundo on the bride’s neck. Later both will enter the house and pray to the domestic deities (s∂n∂m∂hi and l∂im∂rel). The bride is then sent off to the groom’s house. She is received there by her mother-in-law and let to pray to the domestic deities. On the six day of marriage, a grand feast is arranged by the parents of the bride at the bride’s residence. On this day, the bride and the groom are invited along with their friends and relatives.

4. Death :

Before 1724 i.e., during the reign of Garib Newaz, Meiteis used to bury the dead bodies. But after Hindunisation, Meiteis started cremating them. (T.C Hudson, 1908)

At the last moment, i.e when a person approaches death, the dead body is shifted to the right side of the verandah of the house called Ph∂men. After death, the dead body with its head directing towards the northern direction will be laid down on the verandah. The place where the dead body is kept is called Khaŋlenph∂m ‘the place to stay for some time after death.’ The dead body should be kept at the southern part of the courtyard, covered with a white cloth, in a small hut named Khaŋpoks∂ŋ. The meaning of the name is generally perceived as: khaŋ ‘stay for some time,’ pok ‘birth,’ s∂ŋ ‘hut.’ The idea is that human beings are reborn after death. However, if a person dies on the way or somewhere outside home then the dead body will not be taken to the verandah but rather will be placed outside the gate.

The dead body will be dressed with a sacred cloth. It signifies that humans are the negative images of God. The M∂it∂is burn the dead bodies in a pyre.

After death

There are two important ceremonies that are performed after the death of a person. They are ∂sti s∂nchey/ l∂ihun and sorat/s∂rad∂/lann∂ th∂ur∂m. In natural death, the day of sorat will be usually fixed by the person before his/ her death or will be fixed according to the will of the family members. In this category, ∂sti and sorat for l∂mboib∂, l∂mboid∂b∂ and chuk sab∂ and laimiŋ l∂ud∂b∂ are categorized. They are briefly explained below:

∂sti s∂nch∂y and sorat for l∂mboib∂:

On the sixth day of death, a ceremony called ∂sti is performed. On the twelveth day, i.e., on the previous day of sorat, a small ceremony named ‘yumseŋb∂’ (cleaning of the house with holy puja) is carried out. It is performed by a bomon (Brahmin).On the fourteenth day the sorat/s∂rad∂ is performed.

∂sti s∂nch∂y and sorat for l∂mboid∂b∂:

∂sti and sorat are performed one day earlier to l∂mboid∂b∂. On the fifth day of death ∂sti s∂nch∂y/l∂ihun is performed and on the twelveth day yumseŋb∂ puja is done. On the thirteenth day sorat is performed.

Laimiŋ l∂ud∂b∂:

In case of adolescent death, ∂sti /l∂ihun are performed on the fifth day and sorat is performed on the seventh day. This is the same with unmarried persons. Another name for this kind of death is cuk sab∂. The ceremony is performed if the deceased person is of three years and above. In case, if the person is of below three years, no ∂sti is performed, but sorat is performed after three months of death.

(Note: this information is only for M∂it∂i-Hindu religion. Consultant G.Ibohal Sharma, a m∂it∂i -hindu brahmin). For the traditional m∂it∂i religion, on the fifth day, there is l∂ihun called m∂ŋani l∂ihun and on the eleventh day there is sorat ‘sharada’ called lann∂ th∂ur∂m. (Note: m∂ŋani L∂ihun and Lann∂ th∂ur∂m are the m∂it∂i terms and synonymous terms of ∂sti and s∂rad∂ of m∂t∂i-hindu ).

Kumon Phiroi:

Both M∂it∂i –Hindu’s and traditional m∂t∂i religion, celebrate one feast programme called Kumon Phiroi. This ceremony is done on the completion of one year of death.

19. Food System

Food Habit

The staple food of the M∂it∂is is rice, meat/chicken, fish and varieties of vegetables. Vegetable is most commonly found in all M∂it∂i kitchens. Women have little interest in non-vegetarian items when compared with men. In the early M∂it∂i community, non-veg items were not cooked inside homes, but today the trend has changed. Majority of the M∂it∂is prefer fresh vegetables than the cooked ones. One very famous vegetable mixture named ‘Siŋju’ is taken zest. Food is served on silver, bronze and steel dishes. The cak ‘rice’ and insaŋ ‘curry’ are served separately. Curry items are served in bowls and fry items are served in small plates. Rice is served in bigger plates. M∂it∂is take heavy food twice a day i.e., one in the noon and in the evening. Children take morning breakfast but adults usually don’t take it.

20. Dress and Ornaments

Dress

It is generally believed that, the dress worn by the M∂it∂is were the kind of dress worn by the king of Manipur when He ascended the throne. It was just like the dress used by Taŋkhul sab∂ (acting of a Tangkhul male)in Lai Haraaoba festival of Manipur. In the history of Manipur, tanŋkhul saba means kain∂u Chiŋsomb∂ of Nongpok Ningthou. Regarding female dress, it is said that ph∂nek m∂yek naib∂, the strip colour ph∂nek with plain edge which was used by panthoibi (Waŋŋ∂mlon) was the M∂it∂i women’s ph∂nek. This ph∂nek was actually used by the queen when she ascended the throne along with the King. Today, this ph∂nek is seen worn by the Taŋkhul nurabi (acting of a tangkhul female) in the Lai H∂raob∂ festival. Meitei women started wearing shirts from the second week of October,1779, when Maha Rasa Lila started dance in Manipur. Because of the advance in civilization, most of the ornaments worn by the ancestors cannot be seen today. However, as far as the dress and ornaments are concerned, most of them are seen in the traditional and religious occasions like Lai Haraoba festivals. Some of the common dresses and ornaments are mentioned below:

Dress:

Shawl:

White shawls embroidered at the edge are very popular. Various colors with embroidered flower designs and sophisticated designs are also commonly used among women. For religious and ritual occasions white shawls are used. In fact, female shawls are smaller than the male shawls.

Ph∂ijom (Dhoti):

It is a white wrapper cloth especially worn by males. Males wear this on traditional and religious functions. Other colors are also used for diverse purposes. But white is very popular for all the occasions.

Pumyat (Kurta):

It is a type of long shirt designed in various colours. White color is used in traditional and religious functions. For such an occasion ph∂ijom and pumyat are the perfect combinations.

Khud∂i:

It is one of the most popular day-to-day costumes of male. It is worn by men of all ages. It will be in various colours with plain and stripe designs. Males wear this cloth under their waist as a loincloth.

K∂msa / G∂msa:

It is a smaller size khud∂i worn by females. Women use this cloth to cover their upper part of the body. It is also a kind of inn∂phi for women.

Khamen c∂tp∂ phi:

This is a kind of pheijom with wavy and stripe design. The colours may be black, pink, blue, green or brownish printed on the white colour cloth. This type of ph∂ijom is worn by the penna s∂kp∂ ‘penna singer’ at the temple at Lai H∂raob∂ festival (god’s and goddess’s festival), ∂pokp∂ khurumb∂ (a prayer occasion to the departed forefathers) etc. In the ancient time, this cloth was given by the king to those excellent in war, games and sports, and art and culture as a reward for their deeds. This cloth is meant only for males. Now it is not as popular as it was, except in the related occasions.

Lesom / Resom phurit:

This is a kind of shirt stitched with the spongy cloth. The colour of the shirt may vary. The most popular colours are red, blue, green, yellow and black. The priests, priestesses, dancers, and penna singers use this kind of shirt on the specific cultural and religious functions, especially on Lai H∂raob∂ (Festival of God and Goddess).

ŋ∂boŋ:

This is a white cotton shawl woven with indigenously manufactured thread. In the early and medieval period, the male folks used this cloth , but now-a-days it is hardly seen. It was also used as a quilt.

Inn∂phi:

This is purely a white cloth used by both male and female in the traditional and religious occasions. Sometimes females use inn∂phi with small stripes at the edge of the cloth.

Ph∂nek:

It is the most popular wrapper garment for women. Married women wear this below their armpits or below the waist as a loincloth. It covers more than half of the body. Girls normally wear it under the waist. It has various colours and designs ranging from plain to stripe. It has varieties of names as given below:

(a) Ph∂nek M∂yek naib∂:

It is a stripe colour garment. It has a combination of colours in straight line. The combination of colours may be red and black; red, green and yellow; green, yellow and black; black and white; black, white and red etc. The black and white colour ph∂nek m∂yek naib∂ is meant only for the widows. Hence, it is also called Lukhra Ph∂nek. There is another superior quality and sophisticated design known as Phige Ph∂nek. This is used by the newly married women when they go to their parental home for the first time and normally used by the high class lady when they go out for a special feast programme. Manipuri women are proud about their sophisticated garment.

(b)Puŋŋ∂u Ph∂nek:

This garment has two mild colours i.e. whitish pink and pink colour. Females wear this type of ph∂nek when they attend religious ceremony whereas, elder women wear this when they go out for any occasion.

(c) L∂ŋj∂m Ph∂nek:

It is a simple and ordinary type of ph∂nek mainly woven with indigenously manufactured thread. It has various plain colours. At the edge, there is a small colour line. Manipuri females normally use this ph∂nek in their day-to-day life.

(d) M∂slai Ph∂nek:

It is a smooth, thin and sophisticated ph∂nek available in various colours.

Waŋkh∂i Phi:

This is a very thin and transparent cloth embroidered with various sophisticated designs. It is indigenously woven and designed from the fine cotton thread. Female folks are very proud of using this cloth on any marriage and traditional dance occasion. It was manufactured at a place, name Waŋkh∂i. Then it came to be known as Waŋkh∂i Phi. Now a days it is woven at various parts of Manipur. For this, skillful weavers are required.

Moiraŋ Phi:

This is extremely attractive with shining effect on them. At the edge, lotus designs are regularly embroidered. It has variety of colours. The young married women particularly use it at the feast. Even today, women are fascinated to wear it. It is also woven at a particular place named Moiraŋ. That is why its name is taken as Moiraŋ Phi. It is little thicker than Waŋkh∂i Phi.

Rani Phi:

It is a variety of Waŋkh∂i phi but it is superior and more sophisticated than Waŋkh∂i Phi. It is said that the name of this cloth was taken from a woman named Choŋkhram Rani. For the newly married woman, Rani phi and Phige Ph∂nek is the perfect combination.

Choip∂r Phi:

It is a kind of white printed cloth particularly used by the females during the Holi festival.

Ornaments:

Varieties of Ornaments have been used by the Manipuris from a long time. Among the ornaments, some are still seen used by the elderly women. Females use more ornaments than the malefolk. The ornaments used by the male are different from the ornaments used by the female folk in size and design. Sometimes, both boys and girls use same design. During childhood, boys and girls wear small ear rings. Boys after attaining adulthood, hardly use ornaments but women wear it till their death. The most popular ornament used by both small boys and girls is Khoŋji ‘bangle’. This is also removed when they grow. The main ornaments used by the Manipuri ancestors are given below:

Urik:

This is a very simple necklace made out of tul∂si wood. This is used by both adult male and female. M∂it∂i bamons (Brahmins) use it more popularly than the M∂it∂is.

Nari Phabi:

It is a kind of thick earring made from metal especially from gold and silver. The adult females use it. However, it is hardly seen today.

Naraobi:

This is a kind of big circle earring commonly made from steel and silver. The unmarried women popularly use it. It is no more seen today.

Lik (Necklace):

This is popularly worn by both males and females, but there are some differences in design. Males do not use it as much as females do. ‘Necklace’ may be made from metals such as gold, silver, steel, bronze, copper or from any other things. However, gold and silver necklaces are more precious. Even today, Manipuris are using variety of ornaments available in the market.

Khudop (finger ring):

Both male and female, preferably females, popularly wear this ring. It has as many designs as other ornaments have.

21. Loss of Cultural Vocabulary Due To Borrowing & Changes

Meitei culture, like all other cultures of the world, keeps on changing to cope with the modern advancing world. Many terms have been coined up due to the sharing and interactions with outsiders. Many words are needed to be borrowed/loaned to describe the changes in the cultural life due to modernization. This modernization process leads to the loss of cultural vocabulary.

B. Culture in general

Present day Meitei is a conglomeration of seven exogamous clans. With the addition of Brahmin population (who emerged to Manipur only after 15th century) and Pangals (who came from Bangals side in 17th century), Meitei speak Manipuri/ Meiteilon . Majority of Meitei follow Hinduism, however they do not abstain themselves from the traditional animistic beliefs. They still worship pagan Gods and yumlai (family God). Meitei’s are patrilineal people, but they acknowledge the existence and importance of the womenfolk . Women in the Manipuri society play an active role in all spheres of life. Each yek-salai ‘clan’ has many lineages (yumnaks) to regulate marriage alliances and to indicate descent. Woman takes up the lineage of her husband after marriage. Monogamy is preferred in general. A married woman maintains distance with her elder brother-in-law and father-in-law. Close relationship is allowed with younger brother-in-law, younger sister-in-law and mother-in-law. Inheritance is on the male line. No clear notion of primo genitor (as was practiced in the time of monarchy) or ultimageniture exists, movable property is equally shared among the male descendants. Daughters legally inherit nothing, even when they contribute about 50-80% towards maintaining their respective families. Meiteis cremate the dead bodies. Meiteis are mostly agriculturists while women are famous for skills in weaving. Regarding aesthetics, they have a wide range of legends, art and crafts, and their dance forms especially raslila and maibi jagoi are world famous. They have a positive attitude towards education irrespective of gender.