C. MORPHOLOGY

The following are the salient features of kannada: It is an agglutinative language of the suffixing type, with a nominative accurative syntax and subject, object, verb (SOV) constituent order. The word order is fairly free, since noun phrases are marked for case and verbs (in most cases) for agreement with subject in number, gender and person. Subjects and objects are often dropped. The basic principle of the syntax is that all modifiers (including most subordinate clauses) precede the modified entities with a few exceptions, subordinations invariably involves non finite clauses of which there are several types. Finiteness is a function of agreement, not tense. There is a separate negative conjugation of the verb. The burden of the syntax is carried by participles, both relative and verbal, gerunds, infinitives, compound and co njunct verbs, and postpositions.
** source: ‘Kannada’ by S.N. Sridhar (xxiii) page

1. a) NOUN MORPHOLOGY

The nouns of kannada language are grammatically units, that may be morphologically defined, as a root to which suffixes are (gender suffix, number suffix and case suffix only) added. Under noun morphology noun bases such as common nouns, pronouns, numerals and objective bases are being discussed. The various affixes which go with the bases such as gender markers, number markers, case markers and post positional elements are being described.

 
The structure of the noun construction is –

Base + gender + number + case suffixes

The noun base (root) may be made up of a single morpheme which may be bound or free.  With which derivational and inflectional 
suffixes are added.

On the basis of the syllabic composition noun roots may be classified under four headings such as:-

1)  monosyllabic roots     –     (nī ‘you’     strī  ‘lady’)
2)  di-syllabic roots         --     (kara ‘hand’  mane ‘house’)
3)  tri-syllabic roots        --      (kamala ‘lotus’  maḍadi ‘wife’)
4)  tetra-syllabic roots     --     (va-ra-mā-na  ‘income’)
                    	            (yajamāna  ‘husband’)

CLASSIFICATION OF NOUN BASES

Substantive Noun

 
		
Insert one picture or chart - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

 
b)  I  Substantive Inherent nouns:-  Are those which do not take gender number suffixes in the singular and the very base 
itself will be marked for gender and number.

		Ex. gaṇḍa ‘husband’
		      maḍadi ‘wife’

c)  Human nouns:  are those which can take human plural suffixes

	Ex. rāma  proper name
                        atte  ‘mother-in-law’
                        jana  ‘people’                 

d)  Personal noun :- are those which can take certain plural suffixes for the representation    of honour (name of persons)
    ex.  rāma (masculine)                ‘a proper name’
           sīte (feminine)                    ‘a proper name’
  b-1 ) Personal noun are those which can take certain plural suffixes for the representation of honour.

Ex;-  Names of person   kṛṣna  ‘a proper name’
        personal nouns may be classified as masculine and feminine nouns.

Ex.  Musculine nouns               nārayaṇa                      ‘a proper name’
        Feminine nouns                rādʰa                            ‘a proper name’

b-2  Non-personal nouns are those which cannot take honorofic plural  kinship nouns (names of relative)

Masculine  aṇṇa  elder brother
Feminine    akka  elder sister

		
C )  Non-human nouns:-  These type of nouns which cannot take human plural suffixes.

c-1)  count nouns are those which can take nuter plural suffixes 

Ex. kuri   ‘sheep’                               kurigaļu   ‘sheeps’
      āne   ‘elephant’   		       ānegaļu   ‘elephants’

c-2)  Non - count   nouns

c-2-1) place names – place names are names of place

                  maisūru    ‘name of a place’
      	  bannūru    ‘name of a place’

c2-2) Other than place names

                 eṇṇe      ‘oil’
                 hālu       ‘milk’

Derived nouns

Non inherent nouns are those which can take gender-number: suffixes on the basis of the masculine singular suffix that is being added to the base; the noun base fall under the category. This class is further divided on the basis of the feminine suffixes the bases take.

 
Stems which take masculine singular --- a

  aras - a       ‘King’
  cōr  - a       ‘thief”

1.1   bases which take feminine singular – aLu
1.2   mag –aļu    ‘daughter’
                          root
                         
1.3   bases which take feminine singular – i
1.4   bālak – i    ‘girl’                                           etc.,…

iv) CASES

Case is the inflectional grammatical category which goes along with the nouns, Pronouns and Adjectives. The case suffixes are attached after the nominal and promonal forms. Two case suffixes cannot occur in a sequence.

 
In the language of kannada classified into seven cases.

      CASES			CASE SUFFIXES & THEIR ALLOMORPHS 

1.  Nominative			- Ù      ⍵      -u
2.  Accusative			-a       ⍵     -ane             ⍵   -  anu      ~  annu
3.  Instrumental & Ablative     		-in      ⍵      -inda	        ⍵  -   i
4.  Dative				- ige    ~   -ge   ⍵  (-ke ~  -kke)   -⍵  -ag
5.  Genative			-a   ~   [ -ā , -aya]
6.  Locative			-ali  ~  alli  ~  ⍵  olu  ~ : ~ li
7.  Vocative			  ē  ~  ⍵  - :  ⍵  -   Ø

**  The accusative and genetive markers are homophonous forms as –a, but they show difference in meaning.

NOMINATIVE CASE

 
-Ø and –u are the two nominative  case suffixes found in the data 
[-Ø ]   ⍵  -Ø   ⍵  (-u ~ -Ø)
 
⍵   -Ø  occurs    1) after the singular bases ending in –u and
                        2) after the plural suffix

1)  magu – Ø -        ‘child’		
     ka:lu – Ø -         ‘leg’		

2)  mara-galu- Ø	‘trees’
    arasa-ru- Ø	‘kings’

⍵ - u occurs –

1.   After the stem formatives –n–  and
2.   After the singular bases ending in –i, –e and –a,  It is in free variation with  Ø

1)  rāma –n –u  ~  rāma      ‘a proper name’
     kriṣṇa – n –u ~  Kriṣṇa  ‘a proper name’

2)  maḍadi –  (y) - u  ~  maḍadi    ‘wife’
     padaka –  (v) – u  ~  padakavu   ‘medal’

ACCUSATIVE CASE

 
[-annu]	    ⍵  ( - anu  ~  - annu  ~  - ane).  ⍵  - a    

⍵  - annu occurs after

a)   all the singular nominal bases and also

b)   after the plural suffixes, when it occurs after singular nominal bases, it is in free variation with –annu  -ane and –a.  
      When it occurs  after plural suffixes it does not show free variation with -a

	ex:-- a)  bʰūmi-(y)-anu  ~  bʰūmi-yannu ~
       	             bʰūmi-(y)-ane  ~  bʰūmi-y-	 ‘the earth’
      	             dēha-(v)-anu ~ annu ~ ane ~ a	 ‘the body’

         	        b)  bʰakuta-ru-anu ~ annu ~ ane	  ‘the devotees’
              	             vanite –(y)-aru-anu ~ annu ~ ane	  ‘the ladies’
               	             kara-gaļu-anu ~ annu ~ ane         	  ‘the hands’
               	             pāda-ingaļu-anu ~ annu ~ ane	  ‘the legs’	
	             kālu-gaļu – anu

INSTRUMENTAL & ABLATIVE CASE

 
[-inda]    ⍵  (-inda  ~ -in  ~ -i)

 ⍵ - inda occurs 	1) after singular noun bases ending in –i and –e
		2) after stem formatives  -d- : -n- 		and
		3) after plural markers (-ru, -aru and -gaļu)

	It is in free variation with –im , and –i.  When it occurs (after singular nominal bases) and after augments -d-.  
When it occurs after plural marker –gaLu.  It is in  free variation with –im.

(1)  kivi – (y) –inda		‘by the ear’
      āse – ( y) – inda                  ‘from the desire’
 
(2)  kara-d-inda ~ in ~ i	‘by the hand’
       rāma –n-ind		‘from rama’

(3)  dāsi- (y)-aru – inda	‘by the maid servants’
       bālaka-ru-inda		‘from the boys’
       mara-gaļu-inda ~ in	‘by the trees’

DATIVE CASE

 
[ - ige ]     	⍵ -ige  ⍵ -ge  ⍵ (-ke ~ -kke) and ⍵ -age
	⍵ -ige occurs  1)  after singular nominal bases ending in -u and 
                            	     2)  after the plural markers (-ru, -aru and -gaLu , -ńgaLu)
	                     3)  after the stem formatives  -n-

1)  kālu – ige		> 	kālige		‘to the leg’
     daṇḍu – ige		> 	daṇḍige		‘to the army’

2) māna-(v)-aru-ige		> 	manavarige	‘to the people’
    rāja-ru-ige		>	rājarige		‘to the kings’
    pāda-ngaļu-ige		>	pādangaļige	‘to the feet’

3) Kṛṣṇa-n-ige		>	kṛṣṇanige		‘to krishna’
    rańga-n-ige		>	rangańige		‘to Ranga’

-ge:  ⍵ -ge  occurs after

	  1)  Proper names and
                  2)  After singular nominal bases ending with –i and –e	

a)  sēne-ge	> 	sēnege		‘to the army’

⍵ -kke:	occurs after the singular nominal bases ending with –a.
	It is in free variation with –ke

	ālaya-kke ~ ke	> 	ālayakke/ke	‘to the house
	caraṇa – kke ~ ke	> 	caraṇakke/ke	‘to the foot’

⍵ -age:	occurs after the singular plural stem of pronouns

    	na-n-age		> 	nange		‘to me’
   	ni-m-age		> 	nimage		‘to you (plu)’ 

GENETIVE CASE

 
[-a]	⍵ [-a ~ -ā ]

                    [-aya ]

⍵ - a :  occurs after 	1)  The nominal bases ending with –i and –e
                   	2)  The stem formatives -n- , -d- and -in- and 
                               	3)  After pronominal stems carring number markers.
		4)  After pronominal stems carring number markers.		

It is in free variation with –ā   	(1)  When it occurs after the bases ending in –i and –e 
			(2)  When it occurs after the stem formatives -n-  and -d- .             
			     –n is in free variation with –aya.  When it occurs after    
			     pronominal stems carring number markers.

	1)  mane-(y)-a ~ ā	> 	maneya		‘of the house’
	     na:ri (y) – a ~ ā	>	nāriya		‘of lady’

	2)  aṇṇa-n-a ~ ā	> 	aṇṇana		‘of the elder  
                 					brother’
	     cinna-d-a ~ ā	> 	cinnadā		‘of the gold’
	     nāļe-in-a	> 	nāļina		‘of tomarrow’

	3)  aras-ru-a	>	arasaru		‘of kings’
	     ańgane-(u)-aru-a	>	ańganeyaru	‘ladies’

	4)  mane-gaļu-a	>	manegaļa		‘of the house’
	     kara-ńgaļu-a	>	karańgaļu		‘of the hands’

	5)  na-n-(n)-a ~ na-n-(n)-aya			‘of me’
	     na-m-(m)-a ~ na-m-(m)-aya			‘of us’
	     ni-m-(m)-a ~ ni-m-(m)-aya			‘of you’(plu)
 	     ta-n-(n)-a ~ ta-n-(n)-aya			‘of themselves’

LOCATIVE CASE

 
[-alli]
	⍵, (-alli ~ ali ~ oLu ~ i ~ -li) -⍵ - le

	⍵ - alli
	occurs  	1) after all the nominal bases
                  	2) after the stem formatives -n- and -d-
                  	3) after the plural suffixes (iru, -aru, -gaļu, -ingaļu).

It is in free variation with –ali and –oļu in all environments. –alli is in free variation with –li after the bases ending –e and –i, alli, is in free variation with –i after the stemformative -d-.

 
(a)  mane -(y)-alli ~ ali ~ oļu		‘in the house’
      dikku - alli	>     dikkalli	‘in the direction’

(b)   śira-d-alli ~ ali ~ oļu		‘in the head’
       ranga-n-alli ~ ali ~ oļu		‘in Ranga’
       sari-(y)-e ~ ē			‘oh! Is it correct’
       mana-(v)-e ~ ē			‘oh! The mind’
       bīdi-(y)-alli ~ -li			‘in the street’
       sāle-(y)-alli ~ li			‘in the school’
       vidʰi-(y)-e ~ ē			‘oh! Fate’
       nēma-(v)-e ~ ē			‘oh! An order’

⍵ :  occurs after proper names ending in –i and –a.  It is in free variation with –ē after the proper name ending in –i

     Ex:.. 	padmin-ī			‘oh! Padmini’
  	kausaly-ā			‘oh! Kausalya’
   	dayānidʰ-i ~ ē		‘oh! Krishna’
   
⍵ - Ø  occurs after common human noun bases 

       	arasa- Ø			‘oh! King’
	dēva- Ø		            	‘oh! God’
	ayya- Ø			‘oh! Father’

b) Pronoun

 
In morphological pronoun  structure pronoun bases and suffixes:  number are found.  The pronoun bases are classified as four types.

1)  Personal pronoun bases :- It’s two varities are founded  they are


	a)  Ist person pronoun bases – 	nānu   ‘I’

	b)  IInd person pronoun bases – 	nīnu   ‘you’

2)  Demonstrative pronoun bases : - are classified into two types

 	a) aproximate bases  (i-)
 	b) remote bases  (a-)

Demonstrative may also be considered as III person pronoun bases.
            
	 ya  – is the intoragative pronoun base 
           	 ta  – is the reflexive pronoun base
				
Personal pronoun :

I person and              II person &                   reflexive pronoun

Base                +      Number             +       case  [singular    plural]

a)  personal pronoun (Ist person)

[na:]    ⍵nā --               ⍵ (e- ňa -)

⍵na: Occurs  before number markers which are followed by nominative marker -- U

nā - n – u > nānu   ‘I’                           nā - v- u > nāvu   ‘we’

Second personal pronoun (IInd person) 

[ni-]                                    ⍵nī -                     ⍵ni-

⍵nī-  Occurs before number markers which are followed by nominative marker  - u

                             nī - n-u  >  nīnu   ‘you  (sing)
                             nī - v-u  >  nīvu   ‘you  (plu)

⍵ni – occurs before number markers which are followed by case other than nominative case.

    	ni – n – (n) annu   	>  ninnannu      ‘You’    (obj) (sing)
    	ni – n – age          	>  ninage          ‘to you’ (sing)

    	ni - m - (m) annu  	>  nimmannu    ‘you’    (abi) (plu)
    	ni - m - age          	>  nimage         ‘to you’  (plu)


3)  Demonstrative and interrogative

Third person
		Base + gender – Number + case
		mas     –  sing
   		or Fem –  sing
		or Neu –  sing
		or epic –  plu
		or neu  –  plu

a)  Proximate demonstrative 

[i-]                            ⍵i-                           ⍵ī-

⍵i-  Occurs before  mascu. – sing – vanu and –va

	   	          	Femi – sing – valu

          			neu – sing – du
			epic – plu – varu
			neu – pl – vu

i-vanu    >  ivanu		‘this  he’
i-va        >  iva		‘this  he’
i-vaLu    >  ivaļu	        	‘this she’
i-du        >  idu		‘this it’
i-varu     >  ivaru 		‘these persons’ (epic – plu)
i-vu        >  ivu		‘these’

⍵ī -  Occurs before mascu, hon, sing –ta

         	            fem – hon – sing – ke

ī - ta   >  īta 		‘this he’
īke     >  īke             		‘this she’


b)  Remote demonstrative

⍵a-				⍵ā-
      ⍵a- occurs before mascu, sing – vanu and –va

		Fem, sing – valu
         		Neu, sing – du
     	         	Epic, pl – varu
                                Neu, pl – vu

a – vanu	>           avanu	                         ‘that he’
a – va	>           ava	                         ‘that he’
a – vaļu 	>           avaļu	                         ‘that she’
a – du	>           adu	                         ‘that it’
a – varu 	>           avaru	                         ‘they’ (epic plu)
a – vu	>           avu                                       ‘those’		

     ⍵a: - occurs before mas.hon – sing – ta

	 	            fem.hon – sing – ke

	ā- ta 	>           āta	                ‘that he’
	ā - ke	>           āke		‘that she’


c)  Interrogative pronouns	

[ā-]

⍵ā- ⍵ (yā - ~ ā) ⍵ yāvu-

⍵ā - occurs before mas.sing – vanu, – va	
		fem.sing – vaļu
[ā-]

⍵ā, ⍵ (yā – ~ ā-)    ⍵  yāvu-
⍵ā- occurs before mas.sing – vanu , – va
		fem.sing – vaļu

ā – vanu		>            āvanu	         	‘which man’
ā – va		>            āva		‘which person’
ā – vaLu		>            āvaLu		‘which woman’
            
⍵yā – occurs before epic plu--- ru and  it is in free variation with ā --

yā – ru		>            yāru		‘who’
ā  – ru		>            āru		‘who’

⍵ yāvu – occurs before neut – sing – du and 
		
neut – plu – vu

yāvu – du		>          yāvudu		‘which thing’
yāvu – vu		>          yāvuvu		‘which thing’


d)  Reflexive  pronoun

	[tā --]

		⍵ tā – , 	⍵ ta –

⍵tā – occurs before number markers (sing & plu) which are followed by nominative case – u 
tā – n – u		>          tānu		‘one self’
tā – v – u		>          tāvu		‘themselves’

⍵ ta – occurs before number markers (sing and plu)  which are followed by cases other than nominative case. 

ta – n – (n) – inda 	> 	tanninda		‘by one self’
ta – n – age	> 	tanage		‘to one self’
ta – m – (-m) – inda 	> 	tamminda		‘by themselves’
ta – m – age	> 	tamage		‘to themselves’

**  ⍵ Morphological conditioning
     ~ phonological conditioning

GENDER NUMBER MARKERS

The gender system is purely semantically based, with nouns being divided into masculine, feminine and neuter genders. Gods, demons and heavenly bodies are treated as either masculine or feminine, while all animals and infants are assigned neuter gender.

 

Ex:  sūrya (sun)		hāvu (snake)		magu (child)     are neuter
 
a)   Masculine singular

[-a]        ⍵- a, ⍵ - vanu	~   -va
⍵-a  Occurs after the noun bases of the following type 

	dāsa – a 		dāsa 	‘servant’
	aras – a	            	arasa	‘king’

⍵ - vanu :  occurs after the demonstrative and intaragetive pronoun i -, a - and ā- and it is free variation with -va 

i - vanu ~ -va	> 	ivanu		‘this he’
                               	> 	iva
a - vanu ~ -va 	> 	avanu		‘that he’
		> 	ava
ā - vanu ~ -va	> 	āvanu		‘which man’
		>      	āva


b) Feminine singular
	
[- aļu]

⍵ - aļu  	⍵ - vaļu, 	⍵-i,	⍵ - e,  ⍵ - ati & v - ate

⍵ - alu : occurs after stems of the clase
	
mag - aļu  	>          magaļu	‘daughter’

⍵ - valu : occurs after the demonstrative and interrogative pronoun bases i - , a- and  ā-

i - vaļu	> 	ivaļu	‘this she’
a - vaļu 	> 	avaļu 	‘that she’
ā - vaļu	>        	a:vaļu	‘which she’

⍵ - i :  occurs after the noun bases belonging to the  class 
	
	bālak –

	bālak – i		>	bālaki		‘girl’
	huḍug – i		> 	huḍugi		‘girl’
	bʰakt – e               	>          	bʰakte              	‘a female devotee’
	bāl – e                      	>          	bāle		‘girl’

⍵ - ati:  occurs after the noun bases belonging to the class. 

   	goll – ati – gollati – 	‘cowherdess’


c)  Feminine honorofic singular 

         [-ke]	           ⍵ - ke

⍵ - ke occurs after the demonstrative pronoun bases

          ī- and ā-

          ī - ke	       >                īke		‘that she’
         ā - ke	       >                āke		‘that she’

d)  Neuter gender (singular)

         [ - du]		⍵ - du

⍵ - du occurs after the demonstrative and interrogative bases i- , a- and ya:vu 

     i-du 	     	>                idu	            ‘this thing’
     a-du               	>                adu	            ‘that thing’
     yāvu-du	>                yāvudu	            ‘which thing’

e)  Neuter plural 

[-vu] ⍵ - vu ~ vugaļu ⍵ - kaLu ⍵ -ńgaļu

⍵ - vu  occurs after the demonstrative and interrogative bases. 

i-, a - , and yāv – and it is in free variation with – vugaļu --- ivu
i - vu ~ vugaļu 	> ivugaļu 		‘these’
a - vu ~ vugaļu	> avu, avugaļu	‘those’

⍵ - kaļu:  occurs only after noun base mak – 

mak – kaļu 	> makkaļu 	‘children’

⍵ - ngaLu occurs after the common noun belonging the class. 

pāda – ńgaļu   >  	pādańgaļu 		‘foot’
                         	M.R     pādagaļu
dēha – ńgaļu   >      	dēhańgaļu         	‘bodies’
                                M.R    dēhagaļu

f)  Epicene plural 

[-varu]	⍵ - varu	⍵ -r-

⍵ -varu occurs after demonstrative pronoun base i - and a-

i-varu	> 	ivaru		‘they’
a-varu	> 	avaru		‘they’               etc,….

MR – Morphological Role

STEM FORMATIVES

Certain nominal and prominal bases will change their shapes by taking certain stem formatives elements before they take case suffixes.

Stem formatives have no specific meaning of their own, but they have the function of making the roots succeptible for taking the suffixes.

Ocurance of chart of stem formatives

Pronoun/nominal bases + stem formalities  +  cases

1. IIIrd person neuter         +              - ar -      + genitive (-a) Instrumental (-inda)
           Singular

Ex:-- 

ad-ar-a		> 	 adara		‘of that thing’
ad-ar-inda		>  	adarinda		‘by that thing’

2.  e/y ending noun bases    +  - in -  + genitive (-a)

Ex:-- 	

kattu – in – a	> 	kattina		‘of the neck’
nāļe – in – a	> 	nāļina		‘of tommorow’

3.  –a ending proper names +  - n -  + all the cases
Ex:-- 	
rāma – n – inda 	> 	rāmaninda  	‘by Rama’
rāma – n – a	>	rāmana		‘of Rama’

4.  – a ending common noun bases +  - d -  +Instru [-inda, -in , -i]
                                                                 Genitive [-a]
                                                                 Locative [ -alli, -ali ]
 
Ex:.. 
pushpa -d-inda 	> 	pushpadinda	‘from the flower’
man̄ca-d-in	>	man̄cadin		‘by the cot’
mukha -d-i		> 	mukhadi		‘with the face’
dēha-d-a		> 	dēhada		‘of the body’
						etc,..

c) VERB MORPHOLOGY

The verbs of kannada language are morphologically defined as a root /stem to which suffixes (Causative Suffix, Tense Suffix and PNG Markers) are added. A verbal construction has a verb root as its nucleus. The root occurs in isolation as imperative second person. Singular form. A verbal construction of kannada consists of a verb root (nucleus) followed by some suffixes.

 
The structure of the verb construction is – 

	Root  +  causative suffix  +  tense suffix and Number markers. 

				Present 	}             	{1st person sing/plu}
				Past	}   	{2nd person sing/plu} 

				Future   	}           	person and gender number markers. 
      

                                                   			{3rd person Masc.sing}
                                                                           			Fem.sing
                         			                                           	Epic.plu
                                                  			        	Neu.sing
                                                                           			Neu.plu

In the above construction causative and tense suffixes are stem forming suffixes, person, number or person gender, number suffixes are (construction closing) form closing suffixes.

 
LINGUISTIC CLASSIFICATION OF THE VERB ROOT

On the basis of their structure and nature of functions, the verb roots of kannada language are classified into two types.  They are

	1.  Structural classification   	and
	2.  Functional classification		

1.  Structural classification:-  On the basis of the syllabic compositions and specific morphological constructions, the verb roots 
may be classified into two sub-types.  

They are:

	a.  Syllabic classification
	b.  Morphological classification		

a.  Syllabic classification:-  On the basis of the syllabic composition the verb roots
may be classified under four headings.  They are:- 

	i.    Monosyllabic verb roots:	(bā, ‘to come’  ō ‘to love’)

	ii.   Di-syllabic verb roots: 	(nagu   ‘to laugh’  muttu ‘to touch’)

	iii.  Tri-syllabic verb roots: 	(baduku ‘to live’ malagu ‘to sleep’)

	iv.  Tetra-syllabic verb roots: 	(uttarisu ‘to answer’  kattarisu ‘to cut’)

If we closely link at the above examples, we can observe that the simple verb root ends in –i, –e and –u (kuḍi ‘to drink’ naḍe ‘to walk’ and māḍu ‘to do’) . The frequency of –u ending roots are more than that of – i / – e ending roots.

b. Morphological classification:- On the basis of the past tense markers, all the verb roots of this language are classified into seven main classes. Here both the transitive and intrasitive verb roots are considered for this classification. The following list shows the class and it examples of the verb roots.

 
a)  Verb roots which take past tense marker -dd- ar listed under this class

	ir  - to be	get  - ‘to success’

b)  Verb roots which take past tense marker -id- are listed this class.

	muttu	-    ‘surround’
	ōḍu	-    ‘to run’

c)  Verb roots which take -t- as the past tense marker belong to this class.

	bere  	-      ‘to mix’
	kali  	-      ‘to learn’

d)  Verb roots which take -nd- as the past tense marker belong to this class.

	tar   	-      ‘to bring’
	kar  	-      ‘to come’

e)  Verb roots which take -tt- as the past tense marker belong to this class.

	koḍ  	-        ‘to give’
	aļ   	-        ‘to weep’

f)  Verb roots which take -d- as the past tense marker belong to this class.

	kāy  	-        ‘to wait’
 	pidi  	-        ‘to hold’

g)  Verb roots which take past tense marker -k- are listed in this class.

	sig.  	-          ‘to get’
	hog  	-          ‘to enter’

Verbal construction of kannada language may finite or non finite. Any verbal from which express the relationship of the action to a given definite subject (that is the verbal forms which show or imply distinction as to grammatical person by means of suffixes and (personal pronouns) is a finite forms. Finite forms end up with form closing suffixes. Form closing suffixes are gender number markers. On the basis of the form closing suffixes occurring at the end. The verb may be classified into finite and non finite forms.

Finite verbal construction always posses a morphone indicating person number/gender-number as verbal construction (form) closing suffix, that means, a verbal construction has a base, a stem forming suffix denoting tense and number or person gender-number, non-finite forms are infinities , negatives and grounds. Their construction consists of base followed by a infinite negative, gerundial markers respectively. Non-finite verb always occur as a satellite to finite verb.

Verbs are those forms which can take or, are capable of taking tense suffixes and prominal terminations for person number and gender on the basis of its status in a sentence. The verbs of kannada language are mainly classified into two types. They are -

	a)  Transitive verbs	
	b)  Intransitive verbs			

Transitive verb roots are capable of taking a direct object (tinnu ‘eat’ ha:Du ‘sing’) where as intransitive verb roots are not capable of taking a direct object (o:Du ‘run’ naDe ‘walk’). No separate markers are there for the representation of the distinction between transitive and intrnsitive verb roots. Hence the verb are classified as ‘inherent transitive verb roots and inherent intransitive verb roots. The following list shows the inherent transitive and inherent intransitive verb roots of the kannada language.

 
a)  Inherent transitive verbs

	kadi	‘to steal’	 
	kaḍi	‘to bite’	       
	ōḍu	‘to read’
	nōḍu	‘to see’

b)  Inherent intransitive verbs

	aļu	‘to weep’		
	kāyi	‘wait’
	hōgu	‘go’
	bedaru	‘to fear’

CAUSATIVES

Two causative markers are found in the kannada language. They are –isu and –su. Causative markers occur optionally after verb bases and are always followed by the tense markers.

st- 
[-isu]		-isu, 		-su

-isu occurs after consonant ending verb bases

tōr	‘show’		tōr-isu	‘cause to show’
kuḍ	‘drink’		kuḍ-isu	‘cause to drink’

-su occurs elsewhere

naḍe	‘walk’		naḍe-su	‘cause to walk’
bare	‘write’		bare-su	‘cause to write’
kare	‘call’		kare-su	‘cause to call’

TENSE

 	
Tense typically show different locations of an event ‘in time’ (HOCKET, CF 1973. P. 237).  Three kinds of tenses are considered 
in kannada language, they are,

	1)  Present tense 
	2)  Past tense      
	3)  Future tense	

each tense is expressed by distinct markers.

Distribution of Tense suffixes.

PRESENT TENSE:-  

st + causative +
[-utt-]		⍵ -utt-		-ut-

⍵ -utt- occurs after all the verb bases.  It is in unconditioned  free variation with –ut-, it sometimes functions as a future tense suffix.

nōḍ - utt -āne	nōḍ-ut-āne		‘he sees’
ūd-utt-a		ūd-ut-a		‘being blown’
kuṇi - (u) - utt - a        kuṇi - (y) - ut - n        ‘being danced’


PAST TENSE:-

		St + causative +

They are seven types or suffixes (-add-:, -id-:, -t-:, -nd-:, -tt-:, -d- and -k-) representing past tense in this language.

[-dd-]

⍵ -dd-:		⍵ -id-:	⍵ -t-: 	⍵ -nd-:	⍵ -tt-:	⍵ -d 	and 	⍵ -k-

1.  ⍵ -dd-   occurs after verb bases of class I

		ir-dd-anu		iddanu		‘he was’
		biļ-dd-anu		biddanu		‘he fall’
 
2.  ⍵ -id-  occurs after verb bases of class II

		āḍ-id-anu			‘he played’
		kacc-id-a			‘he bite’
		ma:ḍ-i (d) - ḍ		‘having done’ 

3.  ⍵ -t-  occurs after verb bases of class III.  
  It becomes zero before neuter singular  suffix.

		dore-t-anu			‘he was available’
		kali-t-aru			‘they learned’

4.  ⍵ -nd-  occurs after verb bases of class IV

		ba-nd-aļu		bandaļu		‘she came’
		tar-nd-anu		tandanu		‘he brought’

5.  ⍵ -tt-  occurs after bases of class V

		kīļ-tt-anu		kittanu		‘he plucked’
		aļ-tt-aļu		attaļu		‘she wept’

6.  ⍵ -d-   occurs after verb bases of class VI

		bare-d-aļu			‘she wrote’
		koy-d-anu			‘he plucked’

7.  ⍵ -k-  occurs after verbs bases of class VII
	
		nag-k-aļu		nakkaļu		‘she laughed’
		sig-k-aļu		sikkaļu		‘she got caught’


FUTURE TENSE:  

		st+ causative

-v-  and  -b-  are the two suffixes which represent future tense in this language.

[-v-]	⍵ -b-	⍵ -v-

⍵ -b-  occurs after the verbs ending with N,L and a

uṇ-b-a 		umba		‘he will eat’
en-b-a		emba		‘he will say’
koļ-b-aru		kombaru		‘they will buy’

⍵ -v- occurs elsewhere

ōḍu-v-anu			‘he will run’
koḍu-v-enu		‘I will give’
kāṇisu-v-enu		‘I will cause to appear’

d) i) POST POSITIONS

Post positions are semi free forms. Which occur after the case inflected forms of nouns. They are more or less equilatent to English prepositions. The main difference is that prepositions occur before the noun and post positions occur after the noun. They denote the type of relationship existing between the different nouns of a syntactic construction.

Morphologically speaking most of the post positions occur after the genitive form of a noun. Post positions representing sociative, comparative and locative functions are found in the kannada data.

 
Sociative Post Positions:-

-jote,   -sangaḍa   and   -oḍane
are the sociative post positions.  All of them occur after the genitive case marker.

ava-n-a-jote		‘with him’
kriṣṇa-na-sańgaḍa		‘with krishna’
geļe-(y)-a-n-oḍane		‘with friends’

Comparitive Post Positions:-

-ante and -kkinta ~ ginta are the comparitive post positions.
-ante ‘like’ occurs after genitive case and -kkinta ‘than’ occurs the nominative form of a noun and it is in free variation with -ginta.
	
Kabbiṇa-da-n-ante	  	>	kabbiṇadante	‘like Iron’
tāyi - a- ante		> 	tāyi(y)ante		‘like mother’
lōbha-kkinta ~ ginta					‘than passion’

Locative Post Positions:-

-oLage is the locative post positions.  It occurs after the genitive form of a noun.

ava-n-a-oļage		>     	avanoļage		‘with him’ ‘in him’
kaṇṇ-in-a-oļage		>     	kaṇṇinoļage	‘in the eye’
yati-(y)-a-oļage		>     	yatiyoļage	   	‘in the saint’

Adjectives:

Adjectives occur always before noun, and they function as the qualifiers of nouns. Adjectives may be inherent or derived. Inherent adjectives are simple forms, which will occur as such before the nouns.

Inherent adjectives:

 
Inherent adjectives may be further classified into four types.
They are,

	1)  Qualitative adjectives  (oļļe, ‘good’ sihi ‘sweet’)
	2)  Quantitative adjectives ( cikka  ‘small’  doḍḍa ‘big’)
	3)  Numeral adjectives  (ondu  ‘one’  aidu  ‘five’)                              
	4)  Demonstrative and Interrogative objectives :
      	     (ā-gāļi  ‘that wind’  āva-rūpa ‘which form’)

In general, Inherent adjectives are monomorphic forms and they are free items (forms). Inherent qualitatives odjective are those forms which denote colour, taste, character and qualities of that kind.

 
Since they quality the nouns that follow them, they are called qualitative adjectives.

	kempu		‘red’
	kappu		‘black’
	sihi		‘sweet’
	uttama		‘excellent’
	hosa		‘new’
	bisi		‘hot’

Inherent quantitative adjectives denote like size, quantity, amount  etc.,,

	cikka		‘small’
	doḍḍa		‘big’
	sakala		‘all’
	bahaļa		‘many’

Numerals, when they occur before a noun  function as adjectives.  All the cardinal numerals may be considered as inherent adjectives.

	ondu		‘one’
	eraḍu		‘two’
	hattu		‘ten’

Free demonstrative pronouns like a:-, i:- and interrogative pronouns like ya:va- , a:va- can also take the roll of an adjective. So they are called inherent demonstrative and interrogative adjectives.

 
		ā mara		‘that tree’
		ī dēha		‘this body’
		āva rūpa		‘which form?’
		yāva hūvu		‘which flower?’

Certain nouns which do not show adjectival markers in their structure, and take the roll of adjectives are also treated here.

		gaṇḍu-kūsu	‘male child’
		naḍu- hagalu	‘mid day’
		naṭṭ-iruļu		‘mid night’

Derived Adjectives:

Some times certain adjectival suffixes will be added with certain roots belonging to the class noun, adverb, numeral etc., So as to derive adjectives, such adjectives are called derived adjectives. That is, in inherent adjectives no markers representing the adjectival functions are found, whereas in derived adjectives certain markers representing the adjectival functional are found.

 
Suffixes like –āda. –āgi and –a etc.,, will be added with noun roots so as to derive one class of derived adjectives.

	kālin-a-gejje				‘ancklet of leg’
	dīna + āda		>	dīnanāda		‘poor man’ (adj.)
	kallu + āgi		>	kallāgi		‘stone’(adj.)
	
-ana  functions as the adjectival marker in order to derive adjectives from adverbs.

	mēle + aṇa	>	mēlaṇa		‘above’
	horage + aṇa	>	horagaṇa		‘outside’

-ane,  tʰi  and –ti:ya  functions as the adjectival markers in order to derive adjectives from numerals.

	mūru + ane	>	mūrane		‘third’
	āru + ane		>	ārane		‘sixth’
	catur - tʰi					‘fourth’
	dvi-tīya		>			‘second’

Some times even genetitive constructions assume the roll of an adjectives.

	mutt – in – a ōle				‘ear ornament of pearl’
	maneya bāgilu				‘door of the house’
	hūvina – māle				‘flower garland’

ii) NUMERALS

Numeral is a sub class of nouns. Numeral is a word indicating number or quantity and relationship as to number and quantity. Two main types of numerals (number names) are identified in this language. They are

 
1)  Cardinals 
2)  Ordinals 		

Cardinals are simple numerals, and ordinals are numeral stems obtained by adding suffixes like –ane, -t:ya and –tʰi with the bound numeral base. Moreover ordinals may function as explicit adjectives.

 
Cardinals:-  It is refer to counting nouns which are simple and free.  The following   are the  free cardinals numbers.
	Ex:- 	ondu		‘one’
		eraḍu		‘two’
		mūru		‘three’
		nālku		‘four’
		kōṭi		‘crore’

Numeral Constructions:-  Numeral constructions reveal four types of relationships, namely,


1]  Additive  relationship:

      Ex:		  hadiṇalku    				
	[	hattu+ṇalku	]	‘fourteen’   

		      10+4


2]  Multiple  relationship

     Ex:		     ippattu	  		
	[	eraḍu X  hattu	]	‘twenty’   

		      2X10


3]  A combination of multiple and additive relationship

     Ex:		    ippattamūru		             	
	[	eraḍu+hattu+mūru	]	‘twenty three’  

		      2x10+3


4]  Deductive relationship:  

      Ex:		  ombattu		
	[	ondu-hattu	]	‘nine’   

		     1-10

The numeral construction referring to the numbers eleven to nineteen are found by adding cardinal numbers one to nine to the numeral base referring to the ten. So, the constructions representing the numbers eleven to nineteen are representatives of additative relationship.

 
			
			A	+	B
	[		ten	+        1,2,3,4,5,6.----------9		]

			hattu	+        ondu, eradu, mu:ru ------------ombattu

			(hattu)


			hadi	+       ondu > hannondu	‘eleven’
			hadi	+       eradu > hanneradu	‘twelve’
			hadi	+       mūru > hadimūru	‘thirteen’
			hadi	+       nāllku > hadinālku	‘fourteen’

Numeral constructions representing ‘eleven’, ‘twelve’ and ‘sixteen’ are also formed by adding the cardinal dasa - ‘ten’ to the base, e:ka - ‘one’, dvi- ‘two’ and s̡a:d - ‘six’ respectively.

In these constructions additive relationship are found.

		B		+	A
	[	1,2,3,4 and 6	+	daśa		‘ten’]

		e:ka-, dvi-, trai-, so:d	+	daśa

	
		ēka	+	daśa > ēkādaśa		‘eleven’
		dvi	+	daśa > dvā daśa		‘twelve’
		tri	+	daśa > trayōdaśa		‘thirteen’
		sōd	+	daśa > śōdaśa		‘sixteen’

The numeral constructions representing numbers twenty to ninety (20 to 90) are constructed by adding the morphemes representing ten (hattu) with the morphemes representing two to nine (ippattu ‘twenty : mu:va-ttu ‘thirty’ ---- etc.,) – In these constructions multiple relationship are found.

In the same manner numeral constructions representing 200 to 900 and 2000+9000, 2,00,000 to 9,00,000, 2,00,00,000 to 9,00,00,000 are obtained by adding morphemes referring to hundred (nu:ru),thousand (sa:vira), lakh(laks̡) and crore (ko:t̡i) respectively with morphemes referring to numbers two to nine. In these constructions also multiple relationship are found.

 

	B	X	A
[	A    =   ten (hattu), hundred (nu:ru), thousand (sa:vira) lakh (laks̡a), crore (kot̡i)]

	B    =   1,2,3,4,5,-----9
		


Ipp – attu     ippattu			‘twenty’
                >
2    x   10        20

in – nūru       innūru       		‘two hundred’
  	>
2   x    100      200

mūru – sāvira     mūru sāvira        	‘three thousand’
                     >
3   x         1000             3000

aidu – lakṣa                   aidulakṣa	‘five lakh’
		>
5  x        1,00,000       5,00,000	

āru – kōṭi               āru kōṭi		‘six crore’
                        >
6  x       1,00,00,000     6,00,00,000

By adding numeral constructions representing additive relationship (hadi – na:ru ‘sixteen’) with numeral construction representing multiple relationship of numbers (in – nu:ru ‘two hundred’) numeral constructions representing multiple-cum additive relationship can be obtained.

 
(in – nu:ru) + (hadi + mu:ru)		innu:rahadimu:ru
			>
(2 X 100)    + ( 10 + 3)                         	213 ‘two hundred and thirteen’

ipp – attu     +   a:ru              ippatta:ru
                                     >
2  x  10        +   6                 26 ‘twenty six’

(mun – nu:ru)   +  (arav – attu)		munnu:raravattu
			   >
(3  x  100 )       +   ( 6 x 10)                   	360  ‘three hundred and sixty’ 

The above mentioned numeral constructions are completely based on the different kinds of mathematical relationship with numerals. Here all these numeral constructions are considered as the numeral compounds and numeral phrases of this language. Two or more basic (free) numerals are components of such compound numerals. The mathematical relationship is the basic feature of such constructions. But all the compound numerals do not have the mathematical relationship only. Some of the compounds have a genitive grammatical relationship rather than a mathematical relationship (sāvirada innūru – sāvira-d-a + innūru ‘thousand two hundred’, laks̡ada hattu – laks̡ad-a hattu ‘one lakh and ten’)

 
3)  ORDINALS:-

	Morpheme	     ‘first’	pratʰama  Inherently functions as an ordinal
                         
	pratʰama	     ‘first’

Normally ordinals are derived by adding the suffixes –ane, tīya and –tʰi to the basic or derived numerals. An ordinal construction function as an adjectives. –tīya and –tʰi suffixes (ordinal forming suffixes) occur only with morphemes representing two (dvi - ) three (tr - ) and four (catur-)

 
	dvi -tīya		‘second’
	tr-tīya		‘third’
	catur-thi		‘fourth’


-ane occurs with all numerals and adjectival base modalu-

	mūru -ane		> 	mūrane		‘third’
	āru -ane      	> 	ārane		‘sixth’
	modalu -ane	>	modalane		‘first’


Allomorphic Distribution of Numerals

One  [ondu-]

⍵ ( obb - ~ ōrv -)   ⍵ om - , ⍵ oṇ-, ⍵ op-, ⍵ modl- and ⍵ ondu-
⍵ obb- occurs before mas.sing –a, fem.sing –aļu and epic-pl, –varu.  It is in free variation with ōrv – before mas.sing –a

		obb-a	       one person (mas)
		obb-aļu	one woman
		obb-varu	>     obbaru	‘one person’ (pl.)
	ōru-a	obb-a	>     ōrva  obba	‘one man’

⍵ om-occurs before -me (time), -mana(mind)

		om-me ‘once’  
		om-mana ‘one mind’

⍵ oṇ-occurs before ṭi-  ‘only’

		oṇṭi	‘alone’

⍵ op- occurs before -pottu (time)

	-piḍi  	(hand full)

		op-pottu	‘one time’
		op-piḍi 	‘one handfull’

⍵  modl - occurs before suffix  -ane 

             		modl - ane      ‘first’

⍵ ondu - occurs elsewhere

		ondu > ondu      ‘one’

** NOTE:  This part detailed information see. Studies in kannada linguistics by C.S.Ramachandra(numerals in kannada pp-56)

2. DERIVATIONAL MORPHOLOGY

The derivational morphology deals with derivation in general, derived words and derivative suffixes in particular. Derivation is a process by which non-inflectional affixes are added to basses to form words.

A derived word is usually composed of atleast two morphemes, one of them can sometimes operate as an independent morpheme whereas, the other morphemes operate as dependent morphemems. The independent morpheme of the derived word will be always lexical or content morphemes and the dependent morphemems are non-lexical of functional morphemes or affixial forms. On the basis of the position of the dependent morphemes in relation to the independent morphemes in derived word. The dependent morphemes are named as prefixes, infixes and suffixes. Prefixes are those bound morphemes, which occur before the lexical morphemes (dur-jana, ‘bad people’, jana people_ Suffixes are those bound morphemes, which occur after the lexical morphemes (maDi – vaLa ‘Washer man’ maDi ‘wash’). Infixes are those which occur inside the lexical morphemes and they are not found in kannada language. But in certain instance they are considered as infixes. Due to internal changes involving in the level of vowels or consonants or others are treated as infixes. Such changes are not infixes: just for the internal modifications the derivation could be noticed.
(biḍu ‘to leave’, bīḍu ‘the place which we live’)

In kannada derived word (noun) can be formed by adding certain noun forming suffixes, (dependent morphemes) to a base (independent): which may be a noun, a verb, an adjective or an adverb, Sometimes a derived word it obtained by lengthing the vowel of the initial syllable of the base. Such types of resultant derivations of kannada are mainly due to the morphologicall processes of that language. In some cases, gender number suffixes are considered as derivative suffixes.
huḍug-a ‘boy huḍug-i ‘girl’

 
On the basis of the processes involved in the derivation, derivation may be categorized under the following heading.

1)  Derivation involving prefixation :

	duṣ – karma	‘evil work’ 		karma	‘work’

2)  Derivation involving suffixation :

	buddʰi – vanta	‘intelligent’      	buddʰi	‘intelligence’

3)  Derivation involving internal change:

	biḍu		‘to leave’		bīḍu	‘the place where
						we leave’
4)  Derivation involving reduplication :

	ūrūrū                ‘each place’      		ūru	‘place’

The above four types of derivations can be further classified on the basis of the grammatical status of the base which is subjected to the process of derivation. The following are some of the sub types of derivation.

 
a)  Derivation involving noun bases:

      baḍa	‘poor’		baḍatana	‘poverty’

b)  Derivation involving verb bases

      nambu	  ‘believe’(v)	namb-ike	‘belief’

c)  Derivation involving adjectival / Adverbial bases

      jāṇa	‘wise’		jāṇa-tana	‘wisdom’

On the basis of the specific types of derivative suffixes involved inderivation (mas, fe….etc) the above classification of derivation can be further sub-classified . A derived word like guNavanta ‘intelligent person’ is a representative of,

 
		1)  Suffication
		2)  Adjective base involving derivation 
		3)  Derivation involving a derivative suffix

With the specific grammatical role namely   ‘agent’

The following is the broad outline of the classification of derivation and the examples  will be given in accordance with this classification.

1)  Prefixation		+N

	nir-bʰaya	‘fearless’		bʰaya	‘fear’

2)  Suffixation		N+

	bēṇte-gāra	  ‘hunter’		bēṇte	‘hunting’

			V+

	kuṇi -ta 	‘dance’		kuṇi       ‘dance’(v)

			Adj/Adv +

	mṛudu -tana   ‘softness’	mṛudu	‘soft’

3)  Internal Change	X     ➜     X

	biḍu     ‘leave’(v)		bīḍu	‘the place which
					  we leave’

4)  Reduplication	X     ➜      X

	dinadina	‘daily’		dina     ‘day’

PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES

Prefixation:- Prefixation is the process of adding certain affixes before the base and in the present kannada data prefixation is used as a process of derivation. In the kannada, negative prefixes as nir-: dus-: dur-: ku-: and a-:, commendatory are invariably attached to the noun bases.

 
Ex:-  nir – ahankāra	‘egoless’		ahań/kāra	‘ego’
                  + noun
         su-vidya        	‘good education’	(vidya - education)
         a-satya	‘un true’		(satya - true)

It is quite evident that above examples prefixal derivations are loan words from Sanskrit. Prefixation is prevalent to only for loan words in kannada. The kannada language has borrowed plenty of sankrit forms with their prefixial suffixes.

Suffixation:- Suffixation is the process of adding affixes to a base. Derived words that are formed by adding certain suffixes to a nominal base/ to a verbal base/ to an adjectival base/an adverbial bases. Depending upon the base with which the suffixes (these suffixes are named as derivational) are fixed. The derived words are as follows.

	N.R/V:R/Adj.R/Adv.R/  +Per-suf   ➜   Der words.

1.ba.Derivation involving nominal bases

                 N.R   +   Der.suf  ➜  Der.words

Gender-number suffixes, suffixes representing ‘doer’ professor agent, quality… etc… are the various types of suffixes added to the nominal roots. So as to derive noun based derived word. The following examples reveals the noun based derivation.

N.R. +Gender – number suffixes

1)  N + -a (mas.sing)

	suļļ-a		‘lier’
	kivuḍ-a		‘deaf man’
    
2)  N + -i (fem.sing)

	suļļ-i		‘lier’
	kivuḍ-i		‘deaf woman’

3)  N + -e (fem.sing)

	cadur-e		‘smart woman’
	caluv-e		‘beautiful woman’

4)  N+-ati (Fem.sing)

	goll-ati		‘cowherd’(fem)
	bēḍ-ati		‘hunter’(fem)

5)  N+ -iti (fem.sing)

	kannaḍa -iti	‘kannada woman’
	akkasāli -iti	‘gold smit’ (fem)

6)  N+ -aLu (fem.sing)

	mag-aļu		‘daughter’
	iniy-aļu		‘lover’

7)  N+ -ti (female .sing)

	geļa-ti (geļe-ti)	‘a female friend’
	oḍa-ti/oḍa-ti/oḍ-ti	‘land lady’
	
8)  N+ -g-tti ~ - giti (fem.sing)

	agasa-gitti ~ - giti	‘washer woman’
	sūla-gitti ~ giti	‘mid wife’

N+R + Other than gender number suffixes (doer suffix)

N+-ga:ra (to indicate doer and one who is having respect)

 
	sāla – gāra		‘debtor’		sāla 		‘debt’
	bēṭe – gāra ~ kāra	    	‘hunter’	       	bēṭe		‘hunting’

N+ -ko:ra (it indicates that both agent as well as doer)
	
	taṇṭe-kōra ~ gāra	   	‘quarreler’		taṇṭe  	             	‘quarrel’
	lañca-kōra		        	‘bribee’	         	lañca	             	‘bribe’

N+ kāra (It indicates agent)

	āse-kāra			‘greedy person’        	a:se	             	‘desire’

N + vāra (to indicate doer)

            	taļa-vāra 			‘watch man’             	taļa                   	‘watch’

N + da:ra (it indicates doer, one who is having respectively)
	
	mata-dāra                        	‘voter’	           	mata      	              	‘vote’
	jamīnu-dāra 	                ‘landlord’	           	jaminu	              	‘land’

N + iga (which indicates the trade/profession/belongs to particular land/one who is having / one who construct)

	kabb -iga	                             	‘poet’	           	kabba   	             	‘poetry’
	baṇaj -iga	                  	‘bussinessman’       	baṇaju	             	‘bussiness’

N + ike (quality) :  It is also added the derived native noun roots having derived suffix –ga:ra to represent the 
quality of the derived nominal root.

	yajamāna-ike		‘leadership’	yajamāna		‘leader’
	tōṭagar-ike			‘an expert of the 
				garden’
	tōṭagāra			‘gardener’		tōṭa		‘garden’

N+-ja   (It indicates that one who born)

kula-ja 				‘one who born 
      				in good family’    	kula       		‘family’
ambu-ja  			      	‘one who born in
                                                        	water’                   	ambu      		‘water’  (lotus)

ṇ+-vanta (It indicates possession)
guṇa-vanta	        		‘possesser of good 
     				character’	            	guṇa     		‘character’
satya-vanta			‘possesser of truth’	satya     		‘truth’

ṇ+ -tana (quality)
baḍa-tana		         	    	‘poverty’	               	baḍa     		‘poor’
kali-tana			    	‘strength’        	kali       		‘strong’

Derivation involving verbal bases:

V.R +Derivative suffixes ➜ derived forms

Noun forming suffixes -ike:, -ke, -vu: -hu:, -ige:, -ta:, -me:, -a:, -pa:, -pi: -li: etc…. are added to the verb roots and the verb based derivative words obtained. The following are of the examples of the derivation involving verb bases.

 
V.R +Noun forming suffixes:

V+ -ike
	nāc-ike  ‘shyness’			nāch  ‘to shy’
	namb-ike  ‘belief’			nambu  ‘believe’

V+ -ke ~ ike
	kāṇ-ke~ike  ‘sight/appearing		kāṇu  ‘to appear’
	hogaļ-ke~ike  ‘flatter’	  		hogaļu  ‘to flatter’

V+ge
	aḍu-ge~ige  ‘cooking’			aḍu  ‘to cook’
	toḍu-ge	 ‘an ornament’		toḍu  ‘to put an               
              		  ornament’

V+-ta	
	kuṇi-ta  ‘dance’			kuṇi  ‘to dance’
	hoḍe-ta  ‘blow’			hoḍe  ‘to beat’

V+-su
	muni-su  ‘anger’			muni  ‘to become angry’
	tini-su  ‘food’			tinnu  ‘to eat’

V+-pu
	hoļe-pu  ‘shining’			hoļi  ‘to shine’

V+-vaNige
	bare-vaṇige  ‘writing’			bare  ‘to write’
	mere-vaṇige  ‘a procession’		mere  ‘to shine/to exhibit’

V+-a
	āṭa  ‘play’				āḍu  ‘to play’

V+-e	
	beļ-e  ‘crop’			beļi  ‘to grow’

Derivation involving adjectival bases:

Adj.R/Num.(Adj.) R+ Der.suf ➜ Derived form

Gender number suffixes such as -a: -aLu etc.. noun forming suffixes such as -tana: -vanta, -te: -pu: -ppu, etc… are added to the adjectival root in order to get the derived word. Here such derivantions are called as derivation involving adjectival bases. The following examples and illustrations represent the above mentioned derivation:

Adj.Base + Der.suff.

A Gender – Number Suffixes:

 
Adj. + -a  (Mas.sing)

	celu-(v)-a		‘handsome person’		celu	‘beauty’
	cikka-(v)-a		‘young man’		cikka	‘young’

Adj. + -alu (Fem.sing)

	keṭṭa-(v)-aļu	‘wicked woman’		keṭṭa	‘bad’
	hiri-(y)-aļu		‘elderly woman’		hiri	‘elder’

Adj. + -du (Net.sing)

	hiri-du		‘that is big’			hiri	‘big’
	biļi-du		‘that is white’		biļi	‘white’

Adj. + -vu (Net.plu)

	hala-vu		‘many things’		hala	‘many’
	kela-vu		‘a few things’		kela	‘few’

Adj. + -aru (Epi.plu)

	hiri-(y)-aru		‘elderly persons’		hiri	‘elder’
	doḍḍa-(y)-aru	‘elderly persons’		doḍḍa	‘elder’

Other than Gender-Number Suffixes

Adj. + -tana (quality)

	doḍḍa-tana	‘respect’			doḍḍa	‘big’
	jāṇa-tana		‘wisdom’			jāṇa	‘wise’

Adj. + -te (quality)

	yōgya-te		‘good behaviour’		yōgya	‘good’
	jaḍa-te		‘immovable quality’		jaḍa	‘immovable’

Adj. + -pu (quality)

	kem-pu		‘redish’			kem	‘red’
	taṇ-pu		‘cooler’			taṇ	‘cool’

Adj. + -ppu (quality)

	kar-ppu/ka-ppu/
	kari-ppu		‘blackish’			kari	‘black’

Adj. + -vanta (possession of quality)

	bala-vanta		‘possesser of strength’	bala	‘strength’
	naya-vanta	‘possesser of soft’		naya	‘soft’

Adj.Num + -aneya (Numeral objective denoting order)

	ond-aneya		‘first’			ondu	‘one’
	mūr-aneya		‘third’			mūru	‘three’

Adj.Num + -thi (order)

	catur-thi		‘fourth’			catur	‘four’

Adj.Num + -mi (order)

	nava-mi		‘ninth’			nava	‘nine’
	daśa-mi		‘tenth’			dasa	‘ten’

Adj.Num + -ti:ya (order)

	dvi-tīya		‘second’			dvi	‘two’
	tr-tīya		‘third’			tr	‘three’

Derivational involving Adverbial bases:

Adv.R + Der.suff ➜ Derived form

The suffixes like -ane: -age: -aṇa: -i etc… are added to the adverbial root in order to get the derived word. Here such derivation is termed as derivation involving adverbial bases, the following examples and illustrations are clearly represents the above mentioned derivation.

 
Adv.Base + Der.suf:

Adv. + -ane (quality)

mell-ane   ‘slowly’		melle	‘slow’
taṇṇ-ane  ‘cooly’		taNN	‘cool’

Adv. + -age (quality)

mell-age   ‘slowly’		melle	‘slow’
becc-age  ‘warmly’		becca	‘hot/warm’

Adv. + -aNa (direction)

mund -aṇa	  ‘forward’         	munde	‘front’
hind -aṇa	‘previous’		hinde	‘back’

Adv. + -i (one who is having)

nidʰān-i	‘patient man’	nidʰāna 	‘slow’

MORPHOLOGICAL PROCESSES

(a) Internal change (modification)

In kannada language certain examples of nouns which may be considered as derived forms from the verb root by lengthing the first vowel of the verb root. In some cases the vowel or consonant change may be considered as internal change to bring about the derivation. In this regard only the internal modifications, of the root is cause to the derivation. Any derivational suffixes are not found in the constructions. but the changing phenomena representive of derivatives. The following examples clearly represents the internal change in kannada language.

 
	biḍu	‘to leave’		bīḍu	‘residence’ (the place which we live)
	mari	‘young one’	māri	‘having sold’
	koḍu	‘to give’		kōḍu	‘horn’

(b) Reduplication:

Processer of ‘repetation’ are generally come under the heading of ‘reduplication’. Reduplication may be considered as a kind of derivation. It is a process in which a word or part of a word is repeated. Between the reduplicated forms and the respective single forms, remarkable form class changes may not be noticed.

Moreover no general meaning can be given to the process of reduplication, still today the process of reduplication is considered as a sub-type of derivation. Usually, the reduplicated words of kannada may be classified into two major kinds, such as:

1) Partial reduplicatives
2) Complementory reduplicatives

Any reduplicated word will have two segments. In the partial reduplicated word the first segment is a fragment of the second segment. That is, only part of the operand is reduplicated if the reduplicative forms are in the beginning of the operand. Such reduplication is known as partial reduplication. The following examples are the representatives of partial reduplicatives.

	obb-obba	‘each person’		obba	‘one person’	
	ūr-ūru	‘each place’		ūru	‘place’
	all-alli	‘every where’		alli	‘there’
	ond-ondu	‘each one’			ondu	‘one’

Echo word is a special type of partial reduplicated word, “ like reduplicated words echo word also have two segments, the second segment of the echo word will always beginning with ği. The length (shortness) of the vowel in the echo segment will be determined by the length (shortness) of the vowel found in the first syllable of the first segment of the echo word.”

Source: (Shanmugam pillai. 1982 structural semantics of standard Tamil. Poona University, Poona. 68 & 91) The following examples are the representatives of echo words in this data.

	mane – gine	  	‘house and the like…..
	mane – house	  	‘gine – like….
	kaḍḍi – giḍḍi	  	‘stick and the like….
	kaḍḍi – stick	  	‘giḍḍi – like….

Generally, complete reduplication occur in the final position of the base suffixial formatives. Here repetition of the end operand is a common phenomena of the reduplication. In the complete reduplicated forms, there are two segments and the phonological shape of both the segments are identical in their construction. Different types of complete reduplicative forms of kannada language are as follows.

 
					N + N

		        			Adj + Adj	

		         			Num + Num

					V + V

        					Adv + Adv

		         			Part + Part

					N + N

		dina-dina 			‘every day’			dina	‘day’
		eḍe-eḍe			‘every place’		eḍe	‘place’

					Adj + Adj

		bisi – bisi			‘too hot’			bisi	‘heat’
		dappa-dappa		‘too big’			dappa	‘big’

					Num. +  Num.

		nāk-nāku			‘each four’			nāku	‘four’
		nūr-nūru			‘hundred each’		nūru	‘hundred’

					V + V

		bābā			‘come’			bā	‘come’
		nene-nene			‘memorize’			nene	‘to remember’

					Adv.  +  Adv.

		bēg-bēga			‘immediately’		bēga	‘immediate’
		pade-pade			‘often & often’		pade	‘often’

					part + part

		āha-āha			‘exclamation’		āha	‘oh’
		bʰala-bʰala			‘well done’			bʰala	 ‘expression
 						  	 		   for  well done’
Onamato poetic words:

		cili-pili			‘sounds of birds’
		phala-phala		‘shining’
		suy-suy     		‘sound of air’
		mira-mira			‘glittering’

b) COMPOUND MORPHOLOGY

A compound can be defined from the formal point of view as a word that can be disassociated through associative analysis into atleast two lexical morphemes of which the one in the terminals position has the same grammatical capacity, and some times even the same form, as an independent word whereas the other morphemes lack this capacity: they sometimes also lack the form of an independent word and are thus formally characterized as dependent (bound) word forms.

On  the basis of their constructions the compound of kannada language may be classified into two main types.  They are:

	1)  Endocentric compounds      
	2)  Exocentric compounds  

According to Eugen nida, “endocentric constructions are those in which the unit as a whole belongs to substantially the same external distribution class as the nuclear immediate constituent or both immediate constituents (there are rarely more than two)”.

Lehmann .P Winfred [1972 .P.113] define anendocentric constructions as one in which the primary (head) constituent or constrituents are comparable to the complete construction. In endocentric compounds two major constituents are found. Of the two one will be the head/center, and the other will be attribute. The grammatical status of the compound construction will be similar to the grammatical status of the head. The head of the endocentric compound construction may be a noun, a verb or an objective. Similarly the attributive constituents may noun, or a verb or an adjective.

 
		hū	+	māle	>	hūmāle		
		flower	+	garland	>	flower  garland

		kempu	+	tāvare	>	kenda:vare		
		red	+	lotus	>	red lotus
	
            		ondu	+	mana	>	ommana		 
		one 	+	mind	>	one mind
          
		īsu	+	āḍu	>	i:sa:Du
		swim(v)	+	to do (v)	>	having swim

Endocentric compounds are classified as subordinate compounds and co-ordinate compounds. In subordinate compounds one or more attributes and head will be found. In co-ordinate compounds more than one head will be found.

In subordinate compounds two words are found of the two words one function as the head, and the other functions as the attribute/modifier. The form class of the subordinate compound construction and the form class of the respective head constituent of the compound are identical.

 
		hū + māle 	> 	hūmāle		flower garland
		Attribute	                Head
                	N                                  N                                     N
	
           On the basis of the number of attributes occurring with the head the subordinate compounds may be 
devided into  

1)  Subordinate compounds with single attribute 

	Ex:
	mole     +  hālu		>  	molehālu
	‘breast’      ‘milk’                        >	‘breast milk’

2)  Subordinate compounds with multiple attributes

	Ex:  
	s̡aDu + rasa+ anna		> 	saDrasanna
	six       taste   food	   		six taste food

            On the basis of the types of attributes and heads found in the subordinate compounds with single attribute 
the compounds may be classified as follows:

a)  Subordinate compounds with noun head

	1)  N + N
	2)  Qua.Adj + N
	3)  Num.Adj + N
	4)  V + N

b)  Subordinate compounds with verb head

	1)  N + V
	2)  V + V

On the basis of the occurrence of the morphophonemic changes found inside the words and in between the words of the subordinate compounds with single attribute, the compounds are classified in the following way.

 
(a)   No. M.P change

	1)  N + N  :  

	      pu: + m:ale		> 	pu:m:ale		‘flower garland’

	2)  Qua.Adj + N : 

	      kiru +gejje		>	kirugejje		‘small ancklet’

	3)  Num.Adj + N : 

	      ondu + kula	 	> 	ondukula		‘one caste’

	4)  V + N :  

	      suLi + pallu		> 	suLipallu		‘clean teeth’

	5)  N + V: 

	      mai + toLe		> 	maitoLe		‘bath’

	6)  V + V: 
	
	      ku:Di + koLLu		> 	ku:DikoLLu 	‘joined’

      
(b)  With  M,P change

	a)  Vowel change

        	       u + a : > a:
	
         	       ceNDu + a:Du		> 	ceNDa:Du
        	       ball         play (v)		> 	playing with the ball

	b)  Consonant change

	       t - > - d -

	       pu: - to:Ta		>    	pu:do:Ta
	       flower  garden		>   	flower garden    

2) Exocentric compounds

According to Eugen Naida, “ Exocentric constructions are those in which the unit as a whole belongs to a different external distribution class from both of the nuclear constituents or from both of the immediate constituents”

Exocentric compounds have more than one constituent. The form class of the compound is different from the form class of the constituents of the compound.

 
Ex:  	mu + kaNNa			> 	mukkaNNa
	‘three’   ‘eye’	   			one who possess three eyes’ Lord shiva

Under exocentric compounds ‘idiomatic compounds can be included.

	nu:ru + a:ru			> 	nu:ra:ru
	‘hundred’ ‘six’   				many
	sa:vira + a:ru			> 	sa:vira:ru
	‘thousand’ ‘six’  				many

D. SYNTAX

The canonical word order is subject , object, verb which forms the basis of several word order premutations. In keeping with basis SOV word order. Complements period matric clauses, genitives proceede their nouns and main verbs proceedes their auxiliaries.

 
1. Sentence Types

The two types of sentences are found in kannada such as – 

1)  Major group       AND    2)  Minor group

	1)  Major group also has three sub groups.

1)   Nominal        2) Verbal       and       3) Nominal-Verbal

		1.Nominal: 
                                       
        		adu  maNNu
                    	-that (is)       a soil  ‘that soil’

		2.Verbal :   
  
     		 ma:Dti:ni          
      		( I ) do (subject not   expressed)      do

		3.Nominal-Verbal :   na:ma:Dti:ni – ( I ) do (subject 
    						  expressed)

2)Minor group also has three sub types. Such as

		1)  Particle 2) compound and 3) complex

             		1)   Particle:-   	hű:	‘yes’
                                          		hñ:	‘what’
				ā:        	‘what’
				o:	‘yes/answer to vocative’ 
 				hű:hű	‘no’

		2)  Compound:-  	tinda : kuDida
    				he eat : drunk

		3)  Complex :-    	ni:ya:va:ga andra, na:ava:ga siddʰa
                                                     	‘when you say, I ready then’

Source:  	1.  The Dravidian languages –edit– Sanford B.Staeuer p.146 London & Newyord
	2.  The structure of kannada by R.C. Hiremath

Direct speech and quoted speech

** Direct speech is always marked by the so-called quotative particle ‘endu’ (anta in the colloquial variety) which follows the quoted material and is itself followed by a verb of saying such as he:Lu ‘say’ ke:Lu ‘ask’……..

 
Ex: 	1) me:sTru  vidya:rtʰigaLige  ‘hus̡a:ra:giri’  andaru.

                     Teacher said to the students ‘Be careful’
   
       	2) rame:śa  jyo:tiya  kiviyalli  ‘ni:ne  nanna  ra:Ni’  endu  pisuguTTida.

           	     Ramesha whispered in Jyoti’s ear ‘You are indeed my queen’

The following sentences represents the marked word order, with the subject appearing sentences initially, the indirect object or a post positional phrase next, followed by the quoted material. The quotative particle (when it used) and the verb of saying (the main verb) in that order.

Sentence 1) show that the quotative particle may be omitted when the main verb is the ‘proto typical’ verb of saying, ennu (colloquially annu) which is, the source of the quotative particle. This is the only case where the quotative is optional it is obligatory in all other direct speech situations even when other, sometimes synonymous, verbs of saying are used.

 
anta/endu embed ‘cogitations’ in general and not necessarily verbatium reports of speech material. 

	1)  na:Le     barta:re	anta     he:Lidru

     	     ‘he said that he will come tommarrow’
     

	2)  mane cenna:gide anta he:Lidru 

     	     ‘he said that the house is very good’


	     Different use of participle – ante


	a)  ba:Dige esTu anta he:Lidru 

    	     ‘how much rent did he quote’

	b)  adakke  avaru  e:nanta  he:Lidru  

      	     ‘what did he say to it’     

	c)  nimma  tañde  ya:va:ga  barti:ni  anta  he:Lidru? 

      	     ‘when is your father coming’?
      	     (when coming like this did he say?)

	d)  ondu  u:rinalli  obLu  muduki  idlante.  

      	     ‘once upon a time, there was an old woman,  it’s said’

INTERROGATIVES

 
Types of Interrogative sentence

I  Yes-No questions  	a)  Natural  Yes-No questions
                    	b)  Leading questions
                    	c)  Alternative questions

a) Natural Yes-No questions : 

       Which do not expect a particular type of answer.  These type of questions are formed by the  elitic  -a: (dialect ally –e: or –o:) 
 attached to the end of statement.  There is no change in word order.

		nimma  appa  kelasakke  ho:gidda:re 
                                
             		‘your father has gone to the duty’


		Q.   nimma  appa  kelasakke  ho:giddara:?  
            
		      ‘has your father gone to the duty’?


         		1 a)  nimma appa kelasakke ho:dra?
                                
		1 b)  nimma appa kelasakke ho:gidda:re:nri?


         		i: haNNu tumba cenna:gide
                         
         		‘this fruit is very fine’


         		i: haNNu cenna’gideya:? 
            
		‘is this fruit good?’

		haudu, tumba cenna:gide 
            	
		‘Yes, it is very fine.’


b)  Leading questions:-

        Are formed by using  the particals  -alla (variants: allava:, allave:, allavo:, all formed from the negetive element alla 
and the question clitic a: or e: and very rarely o:

		Ex:  ci:la tandidd:ya	ta:nae/allava:?  
		        ‘you’ve brought the bag, haven’t you?’

		        nine   ta:ne/allava: ninu bandiddu?	
		        ‘wasn’t it yesterday that you come?’
  	
c)  Aleternative questions:-  


		idu ka:fiyo:  Ti:yo:?	
      
		‘Is this coffee or Tea?’


		idu ho:sa ka:ro: ?	
                                 
		‘Is this new car’?


		ni:ve:nu barutti:ro: illavo:?
                                  
		‘will you come or won’t you’?


Question word questions


		1)  ni:vu ya:ru?				

     		     Who are you?


		2)  nimma hesaru e:/ye:nu?			
   
      		     What is your name?


		3)  ivaru ya:ru?				

      		     Who is he?


		4)  i:  baNNa he:gide?				 

      		     How is this colour?


		5)  ade:nu?   kacheriyalli  tumba kelsa iratta:?             		        

       		     Why, Is there much work in  the office?

Constituents of the main clause that can be questioned

 
Any constituent of the main clause, including the verb, can be questioned.

Subject:  

 ya:ru krusNanige na:Le maneyalli: pustaka koDalidda:re?
 Who’s going to give Krishna the book in the house tommorow?

Direct object: 

 na:ra:yaNa krishNanige na:Le maneyalli e’nu koDalidda:ne?
 What is Narayana goint to give Krishna in the house tommarrow?

Indirect object:

 na:ra:yaNa  ya:rige na:Le mane yalli pustaka koDalidda:ne?
To whom Narayana going to give the book in the home tomorrow?  etc..	
 			
PARTICIPIAL CLAUSES

Any constituent of a participial clause expect the subject, may be  questioned.
Direct object:  

		 e:nannu no:Di ninage upa:ya hoLeyitu

		On seeing what did you feel like idea flashing.

Indirect object:
		ya:rige rakta koTTu avanu satta?
		After giving blood to whom did he die

ECHO QUESTIONS

yes-no question asked for clarification of what the previous speaker said usually takes the form of repetition of one or more elements of the statement, with the yes-no question clitic –a: attached to the right of the last element.

 
		Ex:  Speaker – A)	krishna ho:da?  	‘krishna went’

       		       Speaker – B)      ho:dana:?		‘did he went?’


		Yes-no questions echo-questions

       		Speaker A)  	maLe baratta:?	‘will it rain’

		Speaker B)            	maLe  baratta:?
				andira:?  		‘did you say ‘will it rain’?       
						or    maLena: ? ‘rain’


				ANSWERS

Answers not marked as distinct speech acts

	a) a:  pa:tʰa	ya:va:ga o:dbe:ku?	
    	    oh, ada (a da)	oh, that –a

	    ‘when should I read that lesson’?


	b)  ivattu  e:nu  ma:Dide? 		 
  
 	    ‘What did you do today?’
 
	    ivattu pu:ra   ka:vya o:dide	 
 
	   ‘I read the whole poem today.’


				IMPERATIVES

	1)  ta:vu i:kaDe dayama:Disi		‘will you please come this side’

	2)  horaDo:Na?			‘Let’s start’

	3)  ni:vu nammallige khaNDita barabe:ku	‘you must come to our house’

	4)  a:kaDe no:Da be:Da		‘don’t see that way’

	5)  i:kaDe: tale ha:ki:ye!		‘don’t you dare show your face around here’ 
                                                                         

SUBORDINATION

Subrdination is generally marked by one or more of the formal properties.

* The word order in nominal and verbal predicates has already been considered. The word of kannada sentence is rather unrestricted. We have been that in qualifying phrases, the prepositional qualifiers can only precede the head noun, but not follow. The restrictions stands in any type of sentence. The head noun can occur in any type of sentence. The head noun can occur in any place in a sentence preceded by these items, is any. In other cases, we have seen the various qualifiers and satellites have rather unrestricted occurrence. But the immediate constituents are as close together as possible. The subject, object,verb, adverb and clauses can occur in any order in a sentence. Their qualifiers it any of course precedde them.

 
Ex:  1) a: u:ra  huDuga ra:tri  eNTu  haNNu tinda 

          ‘the boy from that village ate well eight  fruits at night’

1.1)  ra:tri a:u:ra huDuga  eNTu haNNu tinda

1.2)  tinda ra:tri eNTu haNNu a:u:ra huDuga

1.3)  eNTu haNNu ratri a:u:ra huDuga tinda

1.4)  a:u:ra huDuga tinda ra:tri enTu haNNu  etc……

Source:  ** The structure of a kannada -  Dr.R.C. Hiremath. P-124.

Thus we see a sort of freedom of occurrence of various items in a sentence.  Though such freedom is found, if the frequency of the 
occurrence of these items in various positions is counted, we find that the following word order is preferred.

	N -  nominal (subject)				N         O             V
	V -  verbal 							
	O -  object                                                                                 

The qualities and satellites is any, will precede them.               

NOUN CLAUSES:

Marking of noun clauses: There is no single marking that is used with all noun clauses. Finite noun clauses are marked by the complementizers emba or ennuva, embudu and endu (anno: anno:du and anta, respectively in the colloquial variety. While nonfinite noun clauses are marked by verb modification, the relative participle suffix –a (o:du or addu colloquially) and the infinitive –al, usually with the dative –ikke (like colloquially). Noun clauses usually precede the main clause, but may appear after it especially informal speech.

 
Ex:  vi:rappa  na:Dinallidda:ne  emba  vadantiyannu  nambala:re.

        “I can’t believe the rumour that Virappa is in city’

	The noun clause is takes the accusative case suffix and functions as the direct object of the matrix verb nambu ‘believe’ 
The clause marked by the complementizer ‘emba’ is a full fledged sentence with a main verb inflected for tense and agreement.

ra:ma ba:lyadalli angi ha:kikoLLuttidda sangati ya:rigu: gottilla.

‘no one knows the fact that Rama used to wear shirt in his youngage.
           	                               
ADJECTIVE CLAUSES

	1)  The relative marker  ya:va ‘which’ preceding the relativized element.
	2)  The interrogative  clitic –o:  attached to the last element (usually the finite verb) of the relative clause and
	3)  The remote demonstrative adjective a: ‘that’ at the beginning of the head noun phrases.

	[ya:va huDuga nimma kaikulukidano:]  a: huDuga nanna geLeya

	‘the boy who shook your hand is my friend’


			RESTRICTIVE RELATIVE CLAUSE

	1)  bi:diyalli  sikkida  i:  gaNTannu  e:nu  ma:Do:Na

	     ‘what shall we do with this bag, which was found on the street.’


			NON RESTRICTIVE RELATIVE CLAUSE

	1)  ve:dagaLannu kalitavanige narakada bhayavilla

	     ‘he, who has learnt the Vedas, need not fear hell.’


Constituents of the main clause that can be relativized by the sentential relative  

The sentential relativization strategy is very versatile and can be used to relativize any constituent of the main clause (except the verb)

1)  Relativization of subject     
      ya:  va huDuga a:Duttidda:no:  avanu 
      ‘the boy who is playing’

2)  Relativization of direct object
      ya:va baTTeyannu avaru koNdaro: adu   
      ‘the cloth which they bought’

3)  Relativization of indirect object
      ya:rige na:nu pustaka ma:rideno: avanu  
      ‘he to whom I sold the book’  etc…..

Position of the head noun:-  

Position of relativized element:-

	In the sentential strategy, the relativized element normally remains in its original position in the clause, optionally it together 
with the preceeding relative i.e. (interrogative) pronoun, may be moved to sentence initial position.

Ex:  ya:va  ja:gadalli ni:vu bi:ja neTTiddiro: a: ja:gadalli ondu doDDa tu:tide.
       ‘there is a big hole in the place where you planted the seed.’

ADVERB CLAUSE

 
The different types of adverb clauses are distinguished in terms of:
	1)  The type of non-finite form employed.
	2)  The specific tense/aspect features needed or permitted
	3)  The choice of adverbial particle and 
	4)  The possibility /necessity of using specific case suffixes.

Making of Adverb clauses

1)  Adverb clauses of time:-
Syntactically, adverb clauses of time fall into one of three patterns.

	a)  participial relative clauses headed by a time expression.
	b)  gerunda (nominalizations) suffixed by the dative case marker and followed by a temoral postposition:  and 
	c)  verbal (adverbial) participles without any particles

[a time expression such as a:ga ‘then’  an adverb] or samaya ‘time’ (a noun ) as in.

		appa edda:ga gaNTe hatta:gittu 

		‘it was 10’0 clock when father got up’

		s̡a:le biDuva samayakke po:s̡akaru taya:ra:girabe:ku

		‘parents must be ready by the time the school leaves’

		ni:vu i:kaDe banda:ga banni:

		‘when you come this way please come.’

[Adverbial phrase indicating simultaneous  actions formed by adding a:ga to relative participles]

		na:Le na:nu baruva:ga ni:vu maneyallirti:ra.

		‘will you be at home when I come tommorrow’

		ni:vu horaTa:ga esTu gaNTe? 

		‘what was the time when you started’?

Adverbial phrace to indicate period or duration formed by adding varage ‘up-to’ ‘until’ 
me:le ‘after’ to present and past relative participles. 

 		sariya:gi ma:ta:Dovarege kalibe:ku. 

 		‘you have to learn until you can speak well’

		sa:lege ho:d me:le e:n ma:Dtidri?

		‘what were you doing after going to the school?

Adverbial phrases containing the past perfect  conditional forms followed by past continuous or past subjunctive forms of verbs.

		na:nu ondu madvege ho:gabe:ku  

		‘I have to attend a marriage’

		ni:vu heLadidru : na:nu tarttidde  

		‘If you hadn ‘t  told me I would  have brought it’

Adverbial phrase of comparism formed by adding ha:ge ‘like this’ to present and past relative participles. 

		Ex:  avanu cenna:gi kelasa ma:Dutta:ne

       		        ‘does he work well?

       		        haudu na:nu avanannu cennage no:Dkotini 

      		        ‘Yes, I look after him very well’.  


2. INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE SENTENCE – COPULAR SENTENCES

	1)  kris̡Na oLLeya geLeya 
     	     ‘krishna is a good friend’

	2)  na:ra:yaNa si ai ai el nalli sampanmu:la vyakti a:gidda:ne
	     ‘Narayana is a Resource person in CIIL’

Following copular sentences with normal complements usually do not have an overt be copula in the present tense 
a) although the copula may be used optionally 
b)  post positional phrases also occur commonly as adverbial complements in copular sentences.

rama:La  ga:Di maneyallide  
‘Rama’s vehicle is in the house’

The different types of copular:-

Besides    iru  ‘be’     a:gu   ‘become/be’  also functions as a stative copula a:gu is always followed by iru, which carries tense.

	1)  huDuga sundarana:gidda:ne 
	      ‘the boy is /has become smart’

	2)  cikkada:da kaDDi  
	      ‘a short stick’                                    etc.,,,


			a) VERBAL SENTENCES

Although all verbs have subjects omission of the subject is extremely common.  
However, it is requently the case that the agreement features on the verb reveal the nature of the subject.


			VERBS WITHOUT DIRECT OBJECTS

There is a large class of intransitive verbs which do not take a direct object
ex: 

      	ku:Du  	‘sit’		oNagu 		‘dry’
      	i:  baNNa  oNagide
     	‘this paint dries quickly’

   
			ANOTHER CLASS OF VERBS

The transitives, obligatorily occur with direct object.

Ex:  nekku ‘lilk’  kuTTu ‘pound’  da:Tu  ‘cross’
bekku ha:lannu nekkuttide  ‘the cat is lilking the milk’
	
Direct objects:- laks̡mi (ondu ha:Du) ha:DidaLu 
                           ‘Lakshmi sang (a song)’

                           ga:Li bisitu 
                           ‘the wind blew’

Indirect objects :- It is a separate category marked by the dative suffix  -ge, -ige, or 
–akke.

	1)  maduvege, huDuga huDugi matravalla tande ta:yi:nu oppabe:ka:gide.
	      ‘For a marriage, not only the boy and girl, but their parents also must agreed.’

	2)  nanage haNa be:ku  
	      ‘I want cash’

Oblique objects:- 	1)  i: sihi ninaga:gi tande 
                                
		     ‘I brought this sweet for you’

                        	2)  ra:ma si:ta:LoDane ho:gidda:ne 
                              
		     ‘rama has gone with sita’


b) ADVERBIALS

Various types of adverbial occur including adverbs, postpositional phrases.  Cases of noun phrases and adverbial clauses.

Adverbs:  It can be simple or derived 
                 
	a)  Three time term expressions.

		a:ga 	‘then’	
		i:ga	‘now’     
		ya:va:ga 	‘when’

		andu	‘that day’	
		indu	‘today’    
		endu	‘which day’

	    other tempural expression such as – na:Le    ‘tomarrow’   
 	    monne   ‘day before yesterday’
 	    dina    ‘every day’

                               
	    Ex:  1)   na:nu barova:ga ni:vu iralla
            		‘you are not usually present when I come there’ 

	           2)   ni:vu horDuva:ga taDava:yta?
		‘were you late when you started?’

      	          b)  three time place expression

		illi ‘here’	alli ‘there’	elli ‘where’

		other temporal expressions

		oLage  ‘inside’	              
		horage  ‘outside’		
		me:le  ‘above/ontop’
		keLage  ‘down’
		eduru  ‘opposite’
		
		1)  illi banni	‘come here’
  		2)  avanu elli ?  	‘where is he’?

                          c)  three manner expression

            		hi:ge  	‘this way’	        
		ha:ge   	‘that manner’	
            		he:ge    	‘in what manner’

                         d)  intensuffiers such as tumba:, bahaLa ‘many/ more’

              		svalpa ‘kaDime’	a little/ a few
              		vipari:ta/ati	too much

	ex:  
	      ‘i: u:ralli mu:kambika hotel tumba doDDa ho:Telu’

	      ‘Hotel Mukambika is a very big Hotel in this town’	

	Post positional Phrases
	Instrument expresiion with the post positions  -inda(from), mu:laka, mukha:ntara, ‘through’

	rama geLeyana mu:laka patra kaLisidda:ne
	‘Rama has sent letter through his friend’      etc……


			c) ADJECTIVE PHRASES

	Intensifiers:   
		ati		very
		vipari:ta		very
		tumba		very
		bahaLa		very
		koñca		little
		vasi		little	
		svalpa		little
		sa:kasTu		considerably		etc.,,,

	Comparative phrases can modify adjectives

		(a)  ninaginta uttama manusya		
     		      ‘A person  who is better than you’

d) ADVERBIAL PHRASES

These types phrases are constituents that end in an adverbial and include modifiers of that adverbial. The adverbials may be a ‘pure’ adverb. (simple or derived, e.g: be:ga ‘quick(ly)’ taDava:gi ‘late/slowly) or a verbal participle (e.g. ke:Li ‘having asked’)

 
Adverbial modifiers of 

		Ex:  1)   bahaLa  be:ga  bandaru
		             ‘They came very quickly’

                   	        2)   sa:kasTu jo:ra:gi o:Diside.
 	                              ‘I drove quite fast’

		
POST POSITIONAL PHRASES

It is consists of a post position  preceded by a noun phrase.

		Ex.  maneya   horage
   	      	       ‘Out side the home’

Post positions may be simple

		Ex:  (me:le  ‘on’   even this contains an archaic locative    -e)

All post positions  must have an argument (also referred to variously as ‘object’ or ‘complement’  which can only be a noun phrases). 
 When a co-ordinate noun phrase occurs as the argument of a post position.

		Ex:  ra:ma  laks̡maNa:rigo:skara 
      
             		       ‘for Rama and Lakshmana’

There is the appearance of a single post position taking more than one argument, but the conjucts together function as a single unit –one argument.

Post positions normally govern the genitive case.

		Ex.   kaLLa   je:bina   oLage   kai    iLibiTTa
       		        ‘the thief inserted his hand into the packet’

e) NOUN PHRASE AND OTHERS

A noun phrase is a major constituent of a sentence that function as an argument of the main verb of the sentence. It consists minimally of a nominal head or pre noun and may optionally be preceded and /or followed by modifiers.

 
Ex:  a: eraDu doDDa maisu:ru mallige hu:vina ha:ragaLu
       ‘those two big mysore jasmine flower garlands’

** A noun phrase is one substitutable for a noun stem.  Such phrase fall into three types, as follows.
A personal phrase consists of an adjective phrase followed by the stems av(a)n/u  ‘he’  av(a)L/u  ‘she’  av(a)r/u  ‘they’  and by the suffix –d/u  neuter.  
No super final boundary marker occurs between the constituents.

		cikka		‘young/ small’
		cikkavanu		‘an young man’
		cikkavaLu		‘an young woman’
		cikkavaru		‘young people’
		cik(ka)-d/u		‘a small thing’

	1)  The modifiers may be absent:
                     huDugi	   	‘a/the girl’

	2)  It may consist of  pronoun
                     avaru		‘they’

	3)  It may be a compond noun
                     kai ku:su	‘the youngest child’


Modifiers in noun phrases: 
 
	a) Adjectives precede the non they modify:  
 	keTTa	        kelasa	    bad	        work
	any number of adjectives can precede a noun.

	b) Possesive ‘adjectives’
	Possessive nouns can modify nouns.  In many cases (but not every where for example with proper names as possessors).  
	The possessive marker  -a  is optional
            	Ex:  bannu:ru (-ina) bassu               ‘the Bannur bus’

Demonstrative adjectives:

There are two demonstative adjectives, a: ‘that’ (remote) and i: ‘this’ (proximate) Then, unlike the demonstrative pronouns do not inflect for number. In addition, there is also an interrogative adjective, ya:va ‘which’

 
	a)  a: manus̡ya		‘that man’
	b)  i: huDuga		‘this boy’
	c)  ya:va ka:raNa?		‘which reason?’

OTHER ELEMENTS: 

There are a few counter nouns such as jana, mandi, ‘persons’  udda ‘length’  baNNa ‘colour’ which seem to function as  classifiers.  
They occur immediately after the numeral or quantifier and they are optional.

	Ex:  nu:rondu jana makkaLu  ‘hundredon  one children’

3. Co-Ordination

 
It must be noted at the outset  that Dravidian languages prefer to use subordinate  ‘clauses to sentential coordination’

Sentence may be co-ordinated by any one of three devices,  juxtaposition, participialization and use of coordinating words corresponding to 
‘and’  ‘but’  and ‘or’  these devices differ with regard to their  formal sematic and pragmatic properties.

			‘and’  co-ordination

		Ex  a)  appa kelasakke ho:daru, ni:nu śa:lege ho:de
		            Father went duty, and you went to school.

Any number of sentences can be co-ordinated in this manner.

	In formal speech and in writing the word mattu ‘and’ is placed after each co-ordinated element to express ‘and’ coordination  
when more than two  elements are co-ordinated only the last occurrence of mattu is usually retained with constituent . 

 Co-ordination, mattu can co-occur with the inclusive (co-ordinating) clitic –u:

		ra:ju  śa:lege ho:da mattu ra:Ni maneyalli uLidaLu
  		‘Raju  went to school and Rani stayed home’

		a.  avaru haNavannu bya:nkinallu: mattu vaDaveyannu maneyallu: 
		     iTTidda:re.
		     ‘he has kept (his)  money at bank and jewellary in the home.

			‘but’  co-ordination
	
It is expressed by the placement of the word a:dare ‘but’ preceding the last co-ordinated element.  Only sentences not phrases 
can be thus co-ordinated.

		a)  nanna hattira pennu ide a:dare inku illa
		     ‘I have pen but no ink’


			‘or’   co-ordination

Disjunction is expressed by one of two means:  attaching the elitic –o:  to the right   of each member of the disjunctive set, or using the word 
‘athava’ (or alternatively illave:) or illa (lit –no)  ‘or’  between two members in  some what reductantly, in the same sentence.

		a)  amma naDedu barutta:ro: athava: a:Todalli barutta:ro: ?
		     ‘mother will come by walk or will come by auto’ ?
		b)  kumara barutta:no illa avana geLeya baruttano:  gottilla
		     ‘I/we don’t know is Kumara will come or his friend will come’


		CO-ORDINATION OF MAJOR CATEGORIES

The following set of sentences illustrates how that clitic  -u:  is used to co-ordinate major categories.

		a)  ra:manu: akshmaNanu: kaDige  ho:daru 
		     ‘Rama and Lakshmana went to the forest’

		b)  ca:Nakya buddʰivantanu: guNavantanu: a:giddanu.
		     ‘Chankya was smart and virtuous’.

		c)  i: patrike bengaLu:rindalu: mangaLurindlu: prakatava:guttade
		     ‘This magazine is published from Bangalore and Mangalore’




STRUCTURAL PARALLELISM IN CO-ORDINATION
Co-ordination of adjectives and participial constructions:- 

Adjectives and relative participles cannot be co-ordinated with the elitic co-ordination, but can be with ha:gu: and mattu co-ordination.
janapriyavu: arthasa:stragnaru oppuva-du

		but

janapriya ha:gu:/mattu artʰasa:stragnaru oppuva bajet.
‘A budjet that is popular and acceptable to economists’

Co-ordinaion of active and passive verbs:-

It  can be co-ordinated using the conjuctions mattu or ha:gu:.

	a)  kaLLa bassininda iLidanu mattu ku:Dale hiDiyalpaTTanu.
	     ‘The thief got off the bus and was immediately caught’

	b)  kaLLa bassininda iLida ku:Dale hiDiyalpaTTanu.
 	     ‘As soon as the thief got off the bus,  he was caught’

All the major sentence elements can be omitted under identify in co-ordination.

(a)  omission of subject

	ma:la  siTige  ho:daLu  a:dare  angaDige  ho:galilla.
	‘Mala went to city but didn’t go to shop’

(b)  omission of verb

	na:ra:yaNa de:va:layakku: ra:ju manegu: ho:gutta:re.
	Narayana will go to the temple and Raju to the home

4. NEGATION

 
(a)   Sentence negation:  It is expressed primarily by the use of one of the two negative particles, alla and illa in the final position.

		avanu ra:ma alla 
		‘He is not Rama’

		adu mane alla  
		‘It is not a house’

In contrast with alla, illa occurs with verbal predicates generally illa negates existence, hence can serve as a natural negative counterpart of iru ‘be’

		ańgiyalli  guNDi  illa
		‘There’s no button in the shirt’

		avanige śa:lege ho:guva a:se illa	
		‘He has no desire to got to school’

Negation in modals:-

Certain modal auxiliaries have suppletive negative forms.

		Ex:  ba:radu (prohibitive)
		       Ku:Dadu	(ibid)

       	-a:r- (-a:ra)  etc.,
	

		a)  hiriyarige eduru a:Daba:radu 
		     ‘One mustn’t talk back to elders’

		b)  ninu avara jo:te ho:gaku:Dadu
		     ‘you’re forbidden to go with him’

		c)  nanage haNa be:Da	
		     ‘I do not want cash’

		d)  na:Leyinda kelasakke barabe:Da
		     ‘don’t come to work from tomarrow’


NEGATION AND TENSE

Tense are differentiated in negative sentences by the nature of the verbal form to which the negative element is attached.

		Ex:  a)  ivattu na:nu u:Ta  ma:Dalilla	
		            ‘I didn’t eat my lunch to-day’
       
		       b)  rame:ś,  kelasakke  ho:guvudillava:?	
		            ‘Mr. Ramesh, did you not go for your duty’?  

5. ANAPHORA

The primary means for expressing anaphoric relations are deletion and pronominalization of these, deletion is the preferred option, deletion of subjects is rampant, since the person, number and gender features of subject are marked on the verb.

 
Deletion:-  First and second person subjects of sentences are normally deleted in  conversation.

		a)  nenne geLeyana manege hogidde.	
		     ‘I had been to friend’s house yesterday’

		b)  na:Le ba: ma:ta:Do:Na	
		     ‘come tomarrow, we’ll talk’?

In portions of narrations involving a series of consecutive sentence with the same subject, the subject is normally mentioned only at the first occurrence and all subsequent references are deleted. This is the case even with third person subjects.

 
	Ex: 
		ravi nidrisalu esTo: prayatnisida.  tale me:le musugu eLekoNDa.  nidreya     
		japa   ma:Dida.  laghu sangi:ta ke:Lida.

		‘Ravi tried very hard to sleep.  He pulled the cover over his head.  He  
		repeated the word ‘sleep’ like a mantra.  He 	listened to light  music’

Such deletion of identical subjects can go on indefinetly, useless the sequence is interrupted with a sentence with a different subject. After such interruptions the subject has to be reintroduced.

 
Special anaphoric pronouns:-  A number  of words function as anaphoric pronouns or adjectives or adverbs.

		isTu ‘this much’		asTu  ‘that much’
		int(a)ha  ‘this type of’		ant(a)ha  ‘that type of’
		hi:ge  ‘this way’		ha’ge  ‘that way’

The interrogative counterparts are 

		yestu/esTu  		‘how much’		yent(a)ha	‘what 
 								type of ’
		and he:ge	‘how’

6. REFLEXIVES

The affixal reflexive is restricted to the simple sentence in which it occurs. The prominal reflexive however can ‘go down’ into subordinate clauses, i.e. a reflexive pronoun in a subordinate clause may have its antecedent (always a subject) either with in its own clause or in a higher (super ordinate) clause consequently the reference of a prominal reflexive can be potentially ambiguous in kannada.

 
	1)  mahe:s̡a   mamata:Lige  tanna  maganannu  kaLisalu  he:Lidanu.

	‘mahesha told mamata to send his/her son.’

	In the above sentence, the reflexive ‘tanna’ can refer to either the matrix subject, 

	mahesa, or to the embedded subject mamata.

The affixal reflexive in kannada is sematically complex, expressing a variety of meanings related to reflexivity.  These meanings include the following:

	a)  Identity of subject  and direct object, indirect object or beneficiary:
	b)  Spontancity of the action (i.e, non-intervention by  any other agent or investigator)
	c)  Identity of the subject and (implied) beneficiary and

	1)  bassu la:ri ondakkondu Dikki hoDedavu
	     ‘The bus and the lorrey hit each other’
	    
	2)  na:vu modalu obbarallobbaru viśva:sa iDabe:ku
	      ‘We must first trust each other’

7. RECIPROCALS

It is expressed by means of a reduplicated form of the numeral ‘one’ with the first element in a non-nominative case and the second nominative. In the case of human participants, the human form of “one”, obba is used: with non humans, it is ‘ondu’. The forms are -

 
	onda:nnondu/onda:nondu			obbaranobba
	ondakkondu				obbanigobba
	ondarallondu				obbanallobba
	ondarindondu				obbanindobba
	ondondu					obbarigobbaru(plural)

Elements that are omitted under identity.

	1)  madhura:Linginta   ga:na cennagi ha:Dutta:Le
     	     ‘Gana sings better than Madhura’
            	2)  lata: bʰa:vagi:te ha:Duvudakkinta cenna:gi  ma:lati la:vaNi ha:Dutta:Le
                     ‘malati sings ballads better than Lata sings lyrics’

Correlative comparision:-  

	1)  avanige haNagaLisidasTu a:se he:ccutta: ho:yitu
       	     ‘The more he earned, the more greedy he became’


SUPERLATIVE

	ba:LehaNNu ella: haNNiginta satvabharita a:ha:ra
	‘The banana is the most energytic food of fruits’
	 (it……… energetic than all (other) fruits)

8. COMPARISON

It is expressed by a comparitive post position (-ina) following the standard of comparison. The standard of comparison. The standard is in the dative case, and the order of elements is : object of comparison standard: Dative case marker: comparitive post position (nominal) adjective or adverb.

 
	1)  nanna aNNa nanaginta ettarava:gidda:ne	
      	     ‘my elder brother is taller than me’

Optionally, through rarely, the object of comparison may follow the comparitive post positional phrase, as in:

	hi:ge badukuvudakkinta sa:ve va:si	
	‘It’s better to die than to live like this’

	(a)  close relationship between the subject and the argument affected by the verb.       
       
These meanings are best illustrated by contrasting sentences with affixial reflexives with their non-reflexive counterparts.

	(b)  amma anna baDisidaru	
      	      ‘mother served the rice’(eg. To others)

	(c)  amma anna baDisikoNDaru
	      ‘mother served herself the rice’


a)  PARTICLES:-  The enclitics e: and u: are the most important and widely used devices to convey emphasis.

	(a)  ra:mane: banda
     	      ‘Rama himself came’

	(b)  ra:manu: banda
     	      ‘Rama also came’

MOVEMENT:- Another frequently used means of indicating emphasis is word order, that is, by placement of a given constituent in a position other than the one ‘normally’ occupied by it in a typical subject-object-verb (sov) language in its basic word order, allows considerable freedom in the positioning of the constituents of the main clause, including post verbal placement of constituents. (The word order is less flexible in the subordinative clause and also in writing, as opposed to informal speech.) Thus, informal speech every connectivable word order may be sound. This flexibility is freely used to highlight different constituents.

 
The following sentences represents the normal or unmarked  word order in kannada.

	1)  na:Ni nenne va:Niyannu  ra:janige paricaya ma:Disida.
	     ‘Yesterday Nani introduced Vani to Raja’

	     The adverb ‘nenne’  is emphasized by its place before the verb.

9. EQUATIVES:

Equations are expressed by adding the adverb asTuve (lit - so much) to the oblique form of the standard of equation. This is followed by either a nominal or adverbial element. In positive equative sentences with a nominal complement, the emphatic particle –e: is added to the equative suffix, in negative and in positive with verbal predicates it is not necessary.

 
	1)  duryo:dʰana bhi:manasTu balaśa:liyalla
	     ‘duryodhana is not as strong as Bhima’

	2)  ra:ju rama:nasTe: catura
	     ‘raju is as smart as Rama’

Other means of expressing equatives (or similarity to be more precise) include the use of the  post positions ha:ge ‘in that manner’  
ante ‘like’  taraha ‘often’ reduced to thara) ‘in that manner……)

	Ex:  avaru the:T namma ammanha:ge nagutta:re
       	       ‘they laughs just like my mother’

10. POSSESSION

It is expressed by the genitive case marker -a, attached to the ‘possessor’ noun followed by the ‘possessed’ noun: or secondarily by the post position ‘hattira’ or ‘baLi’ or sami:pa (all meaning ‘near’) following the oblique (-genetive) from of the possessor noun and preceeding the possessed noun, or by the dative subject construction, with the possessor noun: marked dative (-ge, -ige, or -akke) and the possessed noun in the nominative.

 
	1)  makkaLa haNavannu kadiyabe:Da
    	     ‘don’t steal the children’s money’

	2)  nimma  hattira pustaka ideya?	
      	     ‘do you have book?’

	3)  ninna geLeyarige bahaLa muńgo:pa
      	     ‘your friend has a very short temper’

As the glosses indicate, the first or ‘case possessive’ results in an attributive construction, translatable as ‘x’ s ‘y’, the second or ‘post positional possessive’ yields an adverbial phrase translatable as ‘x’ has ‘y’, the main verb in this construction is iru ‘to be’ the third or the ‘dative possess’ construction may be used with or without the verb ‘to be’. If there is an overt copula, it agrees in number, gender (and person in some obscure cases) with the ‘possessed noun’.

11. EMPHASIS

Sentence emphasis is conveyed either by sentence adverbs, such as, khaNDita, (-va:gi). niścaya va:gi ‘definitely’ or more commonly by the emphatic clitic e: attached to the verb stem. In the case of simple (-non pregressive) past and non-past verbs. The main verb either in its root form or its past form, is reduplicated, to which the clitic is attached.

 
	1)  ra:ma bidde: bi:Lutta:ne
	     ‘Rama will fall’

	2)  ra:ju o:Diye: o:Dida	
	     ‘Raju did run’

	3)  ninu: i:kaDe baruvude: illa:
	     ‘You never come this way’

Constituent emphasis:--  

	Stress:  Heavy stress on one of the constituents as opposed to even stress on the others conveys contrastive meanings.  
	Thus in the sentence.

	rame:śa na:Le kelasakke ho:gutta:ne.	
	‘Ramesha will go to duty tomorrow’

Any of the three constituents except the veb may be stressed, to yield meanings such as:

	a)  It is Ramesha (not somebody else) who will go to mysore.
	b)  It is tomorrow (not some other time) that  Ramesha will go to Mysore
	c)  It is to Mysore (not some other place)  that Rama will go tomorrow. 

12. TOPIC

There is no ‘dedicated’ topic marker, i.e. a formal means that uniquely and consistently marks the topic of the sentence. However, a number of devices are employed to signal that particular constituent is what the sentence is about. These included the particles endare (vaniant: andare) e:no, a:daro: and antu: as well as scrambling, left dislocation, and clefting.

 

	(a)  karna:Taka sangi:tadalli pratibheya aLatego:lendare pallavi.

	      ‘The yardstick of talent in Karnataka music is the pallavi’

	(b)  mallige andare  maisu:rina malligeye:  sva:mi

	      ‘As for Jasmine Mysore , sir (there is) only (one species worth the name) The Mysore one’

Movement, without dislocation

It is quite common to place topic constituents sentence initially, with or without a ‘comma intonation’.

	a)  avaLu karede: kari:ta:Le	‘she’ll definitely call’

Dislocation:

        A very common mode of topicalization involves attaching the yes-no question clitic (usually –a: but also in some dialects –o:) 
 to the topicalized noun phrase, with a pronounial copy left at the site of the moved constituent.

	1)  baka:surana:?  avanu ella:  kuDita:ne	
      	     ‘As for Bakasura, he drinks everything.’

When the topicalized constituent is not subject, the pronoun copy is optionally moved next to the topic.

13. MINOR SENTENCE TYPES

 
a)  Vocatives:  Vocatives can consists of a proper name or a common noun.

	Ex:-  beTTa:  ‘hill’, 	hu:vu:   ‘flower’  etc…
	        (note the lenthing of the final vowel)


a kinship term (eg. aNNa:  ‘dad’ (literally ‘elder brother)
one of the vocative expressions, such as sa:r, ‘sir’ sva:mi :  buddʰi, ‘learned one’  all used rougly in the sense of ‘sir’

b)  Exclamanation:  Exclamanations  can include a wide range of expressions, some of which are listed below.

	ayyo:!		(pain, pity, apprehension)
	thu:!		‘disgust’ (at obscenities,….)
	abba:!		‘incredulity’ shock.

Other types of exclamation:-- 

	esTu 	‘how much’		e:nu	‘what’	
	ent(a)ha	‘of what kind’         

	esTu:  cenna:gi  ha:DidaLu  ka:vya 
                   ‘how well Kavya sang’

c)  Topic questions:--  These are truncated questions, where only the topic is retained, the rest deleted,

	1)  a:ro:gyana:?	
	     ‘Are you well’ (i.e, how are you?  As a routine greeting)

	2)  appaNeya:?
	     ‘May I?’  ( i.e, while getting up after a meal,….)

d)  Short answers:--  hű:			}
			a:gali		}   ‘o.k.’
			a:yitu            	}
			sari		} 	

			haudu		}
			sari		}  ‘yes’
			
			illa		}
			alla		}  ‘No’

e)  Gerund Sentences:-- 

	1)  nimma kse:makke ku:Dale patra bareyuvudu
	     ‘please write a letter regarding your health  immediately’

	2)  nanage sa:kasTu: kelasa ide  
	     ‘I have a lot of work’

f )  Nonchalant expression:-- Expressions of unconcern or nonchalance often consists of two parallel structures, juxtaposed:

	1)  a:daresTu  ho:daresTu ?
      	     ‘Who  cares whether (x) comes or not?

	** : source for the ‘kannada’ by S.N.Sridhar  syntax part.
	**  This part (1 page) by S.N. Sridhar – kannada –source

 	**  Source—Kannada S.N. Sridhar  page – 95
An out line of colloquial kannada by w.b.right Deccan college, Poona, 1958.

E. LEXICON

1. a) Kinship terminology

** The kannada kinship terminology is quite extensive and specific. This is a function of the joint or extended family structure current until recently (and even now in many parts) of India. The system makes crucial reference to three parameters -age, consanquinity (relation by blood or marriage) and laterality (relation on the mother’s side or father’s side). As a result there are few general terms such as ‘Anti’ or ‘uncle’ highly specific terms are used instead.

 
a)  Kin related by blood.

                    	      Elder                      	         aNNa
      Brother’s   	
                           	      Younger                	         tamma


                           	      Elder                      	         akka
      Sister
                          	      Younger                 	         tangi
           
                 
b)  First ascending generation

      Father:    appa, tande, ayya, aNNa

      Mother:   ta:yi, amma, avva, abbe, ma:ta

                                          Elder		      doDDappa


      Father’s brother 
                                   	Younger		      cikkappa

                                   	Elder		      atte (so:daratte)
      Father’s sister
                                         	Younger		      atte (so:daratte)

                                          	elder                               ma:va (so:dara ma:va)
      Mother’s brother
      (Maternal uncle)       	younger                          ma:va (so:dara ma:va)

                                          	elder		     doDDamma
      Mother’s sister
                                         	 younger		      cikkamma


c)  Second ascending generation:  

       (grand father)	father’s father		ajja, ta:ta, ayya

		   mother’s father   	               	ajja, ta:ta, ayya

      (grand mother)	father’s mother	          	ajji, amma, ama:mi				                                        
   		mother’s mother 	             	ajji, amma, ama:mi

d)  First descending genaration				
	
	son:		maga, putra

	daughter:		magaLu, putri

e)  Second descending genaration

             	son’s son			mommaga
	son’s daughter		mommagaLu
	daughter’s son		mommaga
	daughter’s daughter		mommagaLu


f)  other’s (relatives)
                                                                                     elder		aNNa

	cousin’s brother (father’s brother’s son)
                                                                                      younger	tamma

                                                                                      elder                   bʰa:va
	cousin (father’s sister’s son)
                                                                                      younger	maiduna
	
             				           	      elder		akka		
	cousin sister(father’s brother’s sister)
                                                                         	      younger	tangi

					      elder		attige
	father’s sister’s daughter		     
					      younger	na:dini/na:dni

				                      elder		bʰa:va
	mother’s brother’s son
					       younger	maiduna

					       elder		aNNa
	mother’s sister’s son 
                                                                           	       younger	tamma

					       elder		attige
	mother’s brother’s daughter
                                                                           	       younger	na:dini

					       elder		akka
	mother’s sister’s daughter                      
                                                                           	       younger	na:dini

					       male ego           maga   		
	brothers’ son				     
					       female ego        aLiya/so:daraLiya 	
				  	       male ego	aLiya/so:daraLiya
	sister’s son	
					       female ego	maga

					       male ego	magaLu
	brother’s daughter		
					        female ego	sose/so:darasose

					        male ego	sose/so:darasose
	sister’s daughter
					        female ego	magaLu 

**  this part by Sridhar- kannada – p.316


KIN BY MARRIAGE	

	wife 				heNDati/patni/kuTumba/yajama:ni
	husband				gaNDa/pati/yajama:na		
	father’s co-wife(step mother)		malata:yi
	co-wife				savati
	father’s elder brother’s wife		doDDamma
	father’s younger brother’s wife		cikkamma
	father’s sister’s husband		ma:va
	mother’s brother’s wife		atte
	elder brother’s wife			attige
	younger brother’s wife	]		na:dini
	/husband’s sister           ]
	elder sister’s husband			bha:va
	younger sister’s husband		maiduna
	wife’s father			ma:va
	wife’s mother			atte
	wife’s younger/elder brother		bha:va maiduna
	wife’s elder sister			attige
	wife’s younger sister			na:dini
	husband’s mother			atte
	husband’s father			mava
	husband’s elder brother		bh:ava
	husband’s younger brother		maiduna
	husband’s elder sister			attige
	husband’s younger sister		na:dini


					elder		akka
	wife’s brother’s wife
					younger		tangi

	wife’s sister’s husband (co-brother)			saDDaka

	husband’s brother’s wife				o:ragitti

					elder		aNNa
	husband’s sister’s husband		
					younger		tamma

	son’s wife				sose
	daugher’s husband			aLiya
	son’s wife’s father			bi:ga
	son’s wife’s mother			bi:gitti
	daughter’s son (G. C)			mommaga
	daughter’s daughter (G. C)		mommagaLu
	son’s son (G.C)			mommaga
	son’s daughter			mommaga
	father’s grand father			pita:maha (mutta:ta)
	mother’s grand father			mutta:ta
	mother’s grand mother                 	muttajji
	grand child’s son			marimaga
	grand child’s daughter			marimagaL


KIN BY ADOPTION

	malatande 			step father
	malata:yi 				step mother
	malamaga				step son
	malamagaLu			step daughter

KIN BY FOSTERING

	sa:kutande			foster father
	sa:kuta:yi				foster mother
	sa:kumagu			foster child
	sa:kumaga			foster son
	sa:kumagaLu			foster daughter

OTHERS

	bandhu				relatives
	baLaga				relations

b) COLOUR TERMINOLOGY

The following colour terms are used in kannada language

	baNNa, rangu			colour
	biLi				white
	kappu				black
	kempu				red
	haLadi/arisina			yellow
	ni:li				blue
	hasiru				green
	kandu				Brown
	u:da:				Purple
	bu:da				Gray/grey
	kittaLe				Orange (also name of fruit)
	siment				Cement(also name of cement)
	ke:sari				Saffron	
	ka:vi				Oclure

In addition, the light and dark shades of colours are indicated by the modifiers tiLi and acca respectively.


c) BODY PARTS		

	śari:ra/de:ha			body
	tale/sira				head
	front of the head			mundale
	hindale				back of the head
	netti				center of the head
	haNe				fore head
	ku:dalu				hair
	mukha, moga			face
	kaNNu/nayana/ne:tra			eye
	hubbu				eye-brow
	reppe				eye-lash
	kivi				ear
	mu:gu				nose
	kenne				cheek
	galla/gadda			chin
	ba:yi				mouth
	tuTi				lip
	hallu				tooth
	davaDe				jaw
	na:lage				tongue
	mi:se				moustache
	gaDDa				beard
	kattu				neck
	ganTalu				throat
	ruNDa				following all these things
	muNDa				body/except all these things
	ede				chest
	hegalu/bhuja			Shoulder
	to:Lu				arm	
	kankuLu				armpit
	moNakai				elbow	
	maNikaTTu			wrist
	kai				hand
	angai				palm
	mungai				fore arm
	beraLu/beTTu			finger
	uguru				nail
	hebbeTTu				thumb	
	stana/kuca/mole			breast
	mole toTTu			nipple
	hoTTe/udara			stomach
	hokkaLu				navel
	bennu				back
	naDu/soNTa/kaTi			waist
	ka:lu				leg
	toDe				thigh
	maNDi/moNaka:lu			knee
	pa:da				foot
	ka:lberaLu				toe
	himmaDi				heel
	linga/śiśNa			pennis
	vrusaNa				testicle
	yo:ni				pudenda
	tika/anDu/pirre			buttock
	carma				skin


d) COOKING TERMINOLOGY

The glosses in cooking terminology  are very inadequate.

	anna				cooked rice: staple dies
	citranna				figure rice
	mosaranna			curd rice
	huLiyanna				puLiyogare
	ba:th/bisibe:Leb:th			dal rice 
	pongal/kiciDi			pongal
	uppiT				upma
	uppiT/kesari bath			chou chou bath
	dose				dosa
	iDli				thin, puffed, fried bread
	capati				chapati
	sa:gu				cooked curried vegetable
	caTni				spicy (relish)
	gojju				curry
	huLi				vegetable lentil stew, eaten with rice
	sa:ru/tiLisaru			light lentil soup, eaten with rice
	tovve				cooked lentils without vegetables and few spices
	majjige huLi		            	butter milk and vegetable stew
	majjige				butter milk
	mosaru				curd
	happaLa				papad
	sanDige				type of papad
	uppina ka:yi			pickle
	palya				cooked curried vegetables
	vaDe 				crisp, fried, doughnut shaped snak made of  lentil flour, not eaten on  auspicious occasions.
	pa:yasa				one of several varieties of milk
	And sugar 				pudding eaten as part of not after / a ceremonial festival meal
	obbaTTu				crisp stuffed with sweet paste
	tambiTTu				sweetish eatable
	sajjappa				sweet eatable
	atirasa				kajjaya
	koDubaLe				crispy eatable ring
	cakkali				fried prickly pretzels made of rice flour (a snack)
	nippaTTu				type of snack
	tengoLalu				----- do -----
	ciro:Ti				layered pastry fried in ghee served on grand Occasions
                karjika:yi				kajjaya
	kaDabu				Sweet Eatable
	mo:daka				Kadabu
	ragi mudde			ragi ball
	bajji				boNDa
	bonDa				bajji
	ja:mu:nu				jamoon
	jile:bi				jilebi
	eriyappa				Fried sweet eatable
	la:Du				laddu
	maisu:rpa:k			mysore pak
	ba:da:m pu:ri			badam puri
	khi:ru				Prepared with milk & Sugar
	huLiavalakki         			Khara eatable
	si:avalakki				Sweet eatable
	pako:Da				Fried snacks
	hayagri:va				Traditional Sweet Item
	roTTi				a flat, round, unleavened bread


2. BASIC VOCABULARY	
	
	amma/tayi				mother
	appa				daddy/father
	akka				elder sister
	aNNa				elder brother
	mane				home
	ba:gilu				door
	kiTaki				window
	ba:vi				well
	bale				net
	ole				stove/oven
	tale				head
	ka:ge				crow
	haNNu				fruit
	ha:lu				milk
	bi:di				street
	guru				master/teacher
	jana				people
	haNa				money
	pa:tre				vessel
	to:Ta				garden
	haNe				fore head
	tiNDi				break-fast
	u:Ta				meals
	ha:vu				snake
	hu:vu				flower
	nadi				river
	heNa				dead body
	ma:tu				speak
	iru				be
	tege				take
	muTTu				touch
	bi:Lu				fall
	naDe				walk
	ha:Du				song
	e:Lu				getup
	koDu				give
	bala				strength
	ka:la				time
	ja:ga				place
	ta:ta				grand father
	da:ra				thread
	pa:Tha				lesson
	ba:la				tail
	ma:va				father-in-law
	la:bha				profit
	sa:la				loan
	ha:ra				garland
	idu				this
	adu				that
	kiDi				spark
	nija				truth
	me:ju				table
	baTTe				cloth
	angi				shirt
	i:ta				this man
	di:pa				lamp
	ni:nu				you
	mi:nu				fish
	si:re				saree
	ku:Du				to add
	tuTi				lip
	puTa				page
	nu:ru				hundred
	pu:je				worship
	sna:na				bath
	tu:ka				weight
	taLLu				to push
	guri				aim
	va:ra				week
	bu:di				ashes
	mu:ru				three
	śu:ra				hero
	kere				tank
	ka:lu				leg
	mara				tree
	giDa				plant
	go:De				wall
	dina				daily
	me:le				above
	keLage				under
	aidu				five
	he:Lu				to tell
	o:Du				to run
	jo:Di				pair
	houdu				yes
	mo:Da				cloud
	no:Du				to see
	ko:pa				anger
	to:La				wolf
	mañca				cot
	gaNDa				husband
	saňje				evening
	dukʰa				sarrow
	hagga				rope
	anda				beauty
	hucca				mad man
	caLi				cold
	jaya				victory
	Dabbi				box
	nadi				river
	nya:ya				justice
	vajra				diamond
	surya				sun
	vana				forest		
	haLLa				pit
	haLLi				village
	huLa				insect
	huli				tiger
	sara				necklace
	vis̡a				poison
	magu				child/kid
	kallu				stone
	hallu				tooth
	purus̡a				male
	mahile/hengasu			female
	huDuga				boy
	huDugi				girl
	maduve				marriage
	pustaka				book
	kannaDi				mirror
	hagalu				day time
	ra:tri				night
	na:Taka				drama
	uńgura				ring
	magaLu				daughter
	angaDi				shop
	vya:pa:ra				business
	maga				son
	na:yi				dog
	pra:Ni				animal
	gu:be				owl
	simha				lion
	hinde				back
	munde				front
	paks̡i				bird
	caLi/taNNage			cold
	dina				day
	ko:Li				hen
	emme				buffalo		
	pa:riva:La				pigeon
	moTTe				egg
	bhaya				fear
	dappa				fat
	beLagge				morning
	u:Ta				meal
	tiNDi				break fast
	ni:ru				water
	kelasa				work/duty
	gaNTe				time
	ghanTe				bell
	du:ra				far
	udda				long
	ha:vu				snake
	rub				ujju
	kattarisu				cut
	hosa				new
	haLe				old
	uppu				salt
	malagu/nidre			sleep
	va:sane				smell
	a:Du				play
	hullu				grass
	teLu				thin
	saNNa				small
	doDDa				big
	candra				moon
	mara				wood
	kurci				chair
	varsa				year
	ko:lu				stic
	iruve				ant
	bhas̡e				language
	idu				this
	adu				that
	i:ju				swim
	ele				leaf
	beLe				crap
	mrudu				smooth
	he:Lu				say
	saDila				loose
	benki				fire
	bahaLa				many
	dʰu:Lu				dust
	kuTTu				pond
	kelavu				few


a) NAMES OF WEEKS

	bha:nuva:ra/raviva:ra/			Sunday
	a:dityava:ra				
	so:mava:ra			Monday
	mańgaLava:ra			Tuesday
	budhava:ra			Wednesday
	guruva:ra/bruhaspativara		Thursday
	śukrava:ra				Friday
	śaniva:ra				Saturday
	dina				day
	va:ra				week
	pa:ks̡ika				15 days/two weeks
	tińgaLu/ma:sa			month
	a:ru tingaLu/ ardhavārsika		6 months/half yearly
	vars̡a				year


b) NUMBERS/NUMERALS

	ka:lu				one fourth  ¼
	ardha				half   ½
	mukka:lu				three fourth   ¾
	ondu				one
	eraDu				two
	mu:ru				three
	na:lku				four
	aidu				five
	a:ru				six
	e:Lu				seven
	eNTu				eight
	ombattu				nine
	hattu				ten
	hannondu				eleven
	hanneraDu				twelve
	hadimu:ru				thirteen
	hadina:lku				fourteen
	hadinaidu				fifteen
	hadina:ru				sixteen
	hadine:Lu				seventeen
	handineNTu			eighteen
	hattombattu			nineteen
	ippattu				twenty
	ippattondu				twenty one
	ippatteraDu			twenty two
	ippattamu:ru			twenty three
	ippattana:lku			twenty four
	ippattaidu				twenty five
	mu:vattu				thirty
	nalavattu				forty
	aivattu				fifty
	aivattondu				fifty one
	aivatteraDu			fifty two
	aivattmu:ru			fifty three
	aivatnalku				fifty four
	aivataidu				fifty five
	aivatta:ru				fiftysix
	aivatte:Lu				fifty seven
	aivatteNTu				fifty eight
	aivattombattu			fifty nine
	aravattu				sixty
	aravattondu			sixty one
	aravatteraDu			sixty two
	aravattmu:ru			sixty three
	aravattna:lku			sixty four
	aravattaidu			sixty five
	aravatta:ru				sixty six
	aravatteNTu			sixty seven
	aravattombattu			sixty eight
	eppattu				seventy
	eppattondu			seventy one
	eppatteraDu			seventy two
	eppattmu:ru			seventy three
	eppattnalku			seventy four
	eppattaidu				seventy five
	eppatta:ru				seventy six
	eppatte:Lu				seventy seven
	eppatteNTu			seventy eight
	eppattombattu			seventy nine
	embattu				eighty
	embattondu			eighty one
	embatteraDu			eighty two
	embattmu:ru			eighty three
	embattna:Lku			eighty four
	embattaidu			eighty five
	embatta:ru				eighty six
	embatte:Lu			eighty seven
	embatteNTu			eighty eight
	embattombattu			eighty nine
	tombattu				ninety
	tombattondu			ninety one
	tombatteraDu			ninety two
	tombattmu:ru			ninety three
	tombattna:Lku			ninety four
	tombattaidu			ninety five
	tombatta:ru			ninety six
	tombatte:Lu			ninety seven
	tombattenTu			ninety eight
	tombattombattu			ninety nine
	nu:ru				hundred
	innur/eraDunu:ru			two hundred
	munnu:ru/mu:runu:ru			three hundred
	na:nu:ru/na:lku nu:ru			four hundred
	ainu:ru/aidunu:ru			five hundred
	a:runu:ru/				six hundred
	e:Lunu:ru				seven hundred
	eNTunu:ru				eight hundred
	ombainu:ru/ombattunu:ru		nine hundred
	sa:vira				thousand
	hattu sa:vira			ten thousand
	aivattu sa:vira			fifty thousand
	nu:ru sa:vira/laksa			one lakh
	ko:Ti				crores

c) DRESS AND ORNAMENTS

	baTTe				clothes/dress
	si:re				saree
	ravake/kuppasa			blouse
	langa				under garments/gown, frack
	angi/saraTu			shirt
	śara:yi				pant
	caDDi/nikkaru			panty
	jubba				shirt (Indian)
	To:pi/kula:bi			cap/hat
	o:le 				ear ornament
	sara				necklace
	beNDDo:le				ear-ring
	mu:guti				nose ornament
	baLe				bangles
	ungura				ring
	ka:lungura				ring for toe
	kaDaga				wrist ring
	kalgejje				tinking bell
	catri				umbrella
	kannaDaka			spectacals
	kunkuma				saffron
	ariśiNa				turmeric powder
	uguru baNNa			nail polish
	tuTi baNNa			lip stick
	ka:Dige/kappu			kaNNu kappu


d) BIRDS

	pakS̡i/hakki			bird
	pa:riva:La				pigeon/dove
	giNi/giLi				parrot
	ka:ge				crow
	haddu				vulture
	ko:gile				Indian cuckoo
	hamsa				swan
	navilu				peacock
	kokkare				crane
	gubbacci				sparrow
	gu:be				owl
	rekke				wings
	kokku				beak
	gu:Du				nest
	gari				feather


e) ANIMALS	

	pra:Ni				animal
	hasu				cow
	emme				buffellow
	ettu				ox
	basava				bull
	karu				calf
	jinke				deer
	na:yi				dog
	kudure				horse
	ba:tu				duck
	a:Du				goat
	kuri				sheep
	katte				donkey
	a:ne				elephant
	huli				tiger
	simha				lion
	nari				fox/jackal
	mola				rabbit
	ko:ti				monkey
	oNTe				camel
	mosaLe				crocodile
	handi				pig
	karaDi				bear
	to:La				wolf
	bekku				cat
	ba:la				tail
	ko:Du				horn


f) NATURE

	prakruti				nature
	nela				floor
	bhu:mi				earth
	a:ka:sa				sky
	su:rya				sun
	candra				moon
	naks̡atra				stars
	samudra				sea
	sa:gara				ocean
	mara				tree
	giDa				plant
	ka:Du				forest
	to:Ta				garden
	ga:Li				air/wind
	bisilu				sun’s heat
	mo:Da				cloud
	miñcu				light ring
	maLe				rain
	ni:ru				water
	koLa				tank
	ba:vi				well
	baNDe				rock
	kattalu				darkness
	ra:tri				night
	da:ri				way
	a:La				depth
	cilume				fountain
	beTTa/parvata			mountain/hill
	beLaku				light
	haLLa				pit


g) DIRECTIONS

	dikku				direction
	pu:rva/mu:DaNa			east
	pascima/paDuvaNa			west
	uttara/baDagaNa			north
	daksiNa/tenkaNa			south
	a:gne:ya				south east
	va:yuvya				north west
	nairutya				south west
	i:śa:nya				north east
	urdhva mukʰa (mele)			above
	ado:mukʰa				below
	oLage				inside
	horage				outside
	munde				in front of
	hinde				behind
	bala				right
	eDa				left


h) MEASUREMENTS

	aLate				measurement
	udda/ni:La				length
	agala				width
	ettara				height
	tu:ka				weight
	doDDa				big
	cikka/saNNa			small
	heccu				much
	kaDime/svalpa			little


i) INSECTS

	ha:te/patanga/pataragitti/ciTTe		butterfly
	iruve				ant
	noNa				housefly
	je:nnoNa				bee
	tagaNe/tigaNe			bed bug
	jiraLe				cockroach
	je:Da				spider
	huLa				warm
	re:sme huLa			silk worm
	halli/palli				lizard
	geddalu hula			white ant
	nusi/soLLe				mosquito
	ce:Lu				scorpion


j) FRUITS AND VEGETABLES

	haNNu 				fruit
	ba:Le haNNu			banana
	ma:vina haNNu			mango
	halasina haNNu			jack fruit
	dra:ks̡i				grapes
	nimbe: haNNu			lemon
	da:Limba/be			pomgranate
	kittaLe haNNu			orange
	ne:raLe haNNu			jambo fruit
	se:bu				apple
	ana:nas				pineapple
	si:be haNNu			guave
	savate ka:yi			cucumber
	kumbaLa ka:yi			pumpkin
	benDe:ka:yi			okra/ladies finger
	padavaLa ka:yi			ake gourd
	mu:langi				radish
	avare ka:yi			beans
	toNDe ka:yi			little gourd
	kaDLe ka:yi			ground nut
	tengina ka:yi			coconut
	TomaTo				tomato
	geNsu/geDDe			roots
	baTa:Ni				peas
	badaneka:yi			brinjal
	i:ruLLi				onion
	beLLuLLi				garlic
	hi:re ka:yi				angular gourd
	nugge: ka:yi			drum stick


k) PROVISIONS

	akki				rice
	anna				cooked rice
	avalakki				fiat rice
	hiTTu				flour
	go:di				wheat
	jo:La				maize
	uddu				black gram
	huruLi				horse gram
	hesaru				green gram
	sa:suve				mustard
	kottambari				coriander
	meNasina ka:yi			chilly
	meNasu				pepper
	uppu				salt
	ji:rge				cumin seed
	beLLuLLi				garlic
	go:Dambi				cashew nuts
	a:lugeDDe				potato
	sakkare				sugar
	ba:da:mi				almond
	tuppa				ghee
	huNase haNNu			tarmarind
	mosaru				curd
	majjige				butter milk
	si:me eNNe			kerosin


l) PROFESSIONALISTS

	agasa/maDiva:La			washer man
	haja:ma/ksourika			barber
	kumba:ra				potter
	kamma:ra				blacksmith
	baDagi				carpenter
	akkasa:li				goldsmith
	be:Da/be:Tega:ra			hunter
	vaidya				physician
	raita				farmer
	darji				tailor
	gaNiga				oilman
	guru				teacher
	upanya:saka			lecturer
	mukhyo:pa:dhya:ya			head master
	vaki:la				lawer
	nya:yamurti			judge
	ka:rya darsi			secretary
	adhyaksa				president
	vyavastha:paka			manager
	java:na				peon
	guma:sta				clerk
	lekkhiga				accountant
	ca:laka				driver
	nirva:haka				conducter
	tantragna				technician


m) TIME

	ka:la/samaya/ve:Le			time
	ksaNa				second
	nimisa				minute
	gaNTe				hour
	munja:ne/beLagge			morning
	sanje/sa:yanka:la			evening
	ra:tri				night
	hagalu				noon
	naDura:tri/Madhya ratri		mid night


n) SEASONS

	be:sage ka:la			summer
	caLiga:la				winter
	maLega:la				rainy season
	maLe				rain
	bisilu				sunshine


o) METALS

	kabbiNa				iron
	hitta:Le				brass
	si:sa				lead
	cinna				gold
	beLLi				silver
	vajra				diamond
	ta:mra				copper
	gandhaka				sulpher
	kancu				bronze
	ukku				zink


p) PRONOUNS

	na:nu				I
	ni:nu				you ( sing.)
	avanu				he
	na:vu				we
	ni:vu				you (plu)
	avaru				they
	avaLu				she
	adu				that
	idu				this
	avu				they
	ya:ru				who
	e:nu				what
	esTu				how much
	ta:ne				himself
	ta:ve				themselves


q) DISEASES

	jvara 				fever
	negaDi				cold
	kemmu				cough
	tale no:vu				head ache
	si:nu				sneezing
	no:vu				pain
	madhume:ha			sugar somplaint
	raktadottaDa			blood pressure


r) MISCELLANEOUS

	u:ru/haLLi/gra:ma			village
	nagara				city
	da:ri				path
	bi:di				street
	hedda:ri				high way
	angaDi				shop
	śa:le				school
	ka:gada				paper
	patra				letter
	kathe				story
	na:Taka				drama
	padya				poem
	ka:ru				car
	bassu				bus
	a:ka:śava:Ni			radio
	do:radarsana			t.v
	guDi				temple
	raste				road
	mata				vote
	pu:je				worship
	ya:tre				journey


s) MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS

	sangi:ta				music
	nrutya				dance
	gejje				Tinking bell	
	vadya				musical instruments
	vi:Ne				vina
	piTi:lu				violine
	koLalu				flute
	tabala				a kind of drum
	mrudanga				a kind of drum


t) PLANETS

	graha				planet
	naks̡atra				star
	guru				Jupiter
	mangaLa				mars
	budha				mercury
	candra				moon
	śukra				venus
	varuNa				Neptune
	bhu:mi				earth
	yure:nus				Uranus
	śani				Saturn
	Pluto:				Pluto
	

u) THE ZODIAC

	ra:śi cakra				zodiac
	me:sa				aries
	vruśabha				Taurus
	mitʰuna				Gemini
	kaTaka				cancer
	simha				leo
	kanya				virgo
	tula:				libra
	vruścika				scorpion
	dhanassu				sagitarious
	makara				Capricorn
	kumbha				aquarious
	mi:na				pisces


v) MONTHS

	ma:sa/tingaLu			month
	chai:tra				march-april
	vaiśa:ka				april-may
	je:s̡Ta				may-june
	a:sa:Da				june-july
	śra:vaNa				july-august
	ba:drapada			august-september
	aśvayuja				September-october
	ka:rti:ka				October-november
	ma:rgaśi:ra			November-december
	pusya 				December-january
	ma:gha				January-february
	pa:lguNa/pha:lguNa			February-march


w) SEASONS

	ritu/rutu	            		season			masa/months
	vasanta			spring			chaitra – vaisakha
	gri:sma			hot season		je:sTha – a:sa:Da
	vars̡a			rainy season		sra:vaNa
	sarad			autumn			ka:rti:ka
	himanta/he:manta		winter			ma:rgasira – pusya
	śiśira			cool season		ma:gha – pha:lguNa

VIII. LITERATURE

	Usually on the basis of the historical sources: methods of documentation and literature traditions of kannada literature is 
divided into two main divisions.  Such as,

	1)  folk/oral literature
	2)  written literature   

FOLK LITERATURE

The folk literature has only oral tradition and as such, it is not available for definite references. However, it must have existed in the very early stages of the kannada language.

From its early phase kannada literature had a strong folklore base. From time to time, there has been mutual influence between the folk and the classical traditions, relating not only to the stories but to the structure and style as well. It is difficult to trace the history of any verbal forms, art features or musical performance. There are stray references to folk elements cited in the early works and inscriptions in kannada and in other languages. Thus, the mention of dance performance in cilappatikaram, a Tamil work of around second century A.D. of pagaraNa (It is a part of daśaru:paka in Sanskrit term ‘prakaraNa) a thearitical form in vaDDa:radhane (10th century A.D.) which is retained to that date with, of course, regional and other variations or that of ekkalaga:na and ta:LamaddaLe in Bharateshavaibhava and an inscription respectively which are in some way connected to the present yakshagana (yaksaga:na) a dance-drama are few among others.

The vi:raśaiva and vais̡Nava movements that were powerful during the 12th,14th and 15th centuries A.D. respectively are the factors that are said to have influenced the folk traditions. The entering of Rama and Krishna the singer being called Bhagavata (bha:gavata) in yakshagana (yaksaga:na) are due to the influence of vaisnavism the combining of su:La ritual (where a devotee in fullfilment of his vow climbs to the top of a pole and swings in the air) that is of saivite origin with the ma:ramma festival is due to the cultural intermingling, uniculturalism developed in the bi or multilingual contexts which is typical and natural to the Indian situation.

Some scholars hold the view that folklore in general and of kannada as well, reflects the accepted norm, the value system of the society and never protest against it, the story of woman who in difference to her in-laws wish sacrifices herself in the name of a tank (and this entitled keregeha:ra ‘food to the tank’) is a typical instance which supports such a statement, but there are instances which go against this, for ex: asa:Di who has many role combined into one openly abases the upper caste people as a part of the ritual during the ma:ramma festival.

FOLK TRADITIONS

The folklore of kannada includes verbal core, music, arts and material culture.

Verbal core includes narrative poems, songs, proverbs, riddles and verbal games: music and arts include visual and performing arts, medicine, customs and beliefs divinations etc., fall under material culture.

The devotional songs, songs of praise and some of the narrative poems cam be termed as religious and the rest as non-religious. There are la:vaNi:s belinging to both these types. A ballad is usually meant for recitation in public and is always accompanied by an instrument, There are ballads on historical events, the kings and queen like kittu:ru cennamma ha:Du and piriya:paTTaNa ka:Laga.

The religious and narrative poems come from a class of professional singers and there are many such groups of singers who sing after the name of their deities. de:varaguDDa or kamsa:Le are the devotees of malemadeswara (malema:de:svara) the ni:laga:ras sing the greatness of maNTe:sva:mi: the cauDike people worship goddess ellamma: the Goravas belong to the maila:rilinga tradition.

The non-religious or secular stories inverse come from several other non-professional classes like kinnarijo:gi heLava, dombida:sa (in the south).

The songs of non-religious character that include lyrics, humour songs, riddle songs, lullabies and others on various subjects are sung or recited in different contexts like marriage, seasonal works like planting, harvesting etc., are mostly in tripadi (a unit of three lines) and most of these songs are sung by women. The songs on household matters usually reflect the difficulties faced by a woman in joint family.

The proverbs are different from the rest of the verbal forms in that they, cross the standard colloquial and caste boundries and are accepted without any changes in the form. They are treated as a part of the language and belong to the linguistic repertoire. Kannada proverbs may have an epical incident (ex: some how kunti’s children could never rule ‘antu intu kunti makkaLige ra:jyavilla’) or a historical/natural event or a moral story (bekkige calla:Ta va:dare ilige pra:NasańkaTa’ It is cat’s play but death to the rat) hidden in them. They function as capsules of knowledge, structurally kannada proverbs have two parts of equal time length and there is a semantic parallelism between them. (Ex: ta:yiyante magaLu nu:linante si:re ‘ the daughter is like her mother, the saree like its thread). They may consist of semantically related words like blind or lame! (kuNTo: kuruDo:) mother-in-law or daughter-in-law ! (atteyo: soseyo:!) etc., Rhyme are usually maintained.

 
2)  Written Literature:  On the basis of the mode of the written documents and its physical format of kannada literature 
it is classified into two subgroups.  They are: 

	a.  Inscriptional records                                  
	b.  Literary/classical Literary works.

a) INSCRIPTIONAL RECORDS:- Inscriptional records posses the earliest place in the history of both language and literature. The inscriptions can be included as part of the literary of language.

The Halmidi (halmiDi) inscription is a record of donation of a piece of land to a war hero by a one can notice a highly developed literary language in them. Fifty percent of the words of the inscription borrowed are from Sanskrit.

 
	Ex:    ನಮಃ ಶ್ರೀಮತ್ ........... ಕದಂಬಪನ್ ............ ಕಕುತ್ಸ್ಥೃಭಟ್ಟೋರನ್ 
	          ಅಳೆ ........... ಎಲ್ಲ ಭಟಾರಿಯಾ ............. ಸು ತನ್ಗೆ ............ ವಿಜ ಅರಸನ್ಗೆ 
	          ‘ಬಾಳ್ಗಚ್ಚು’     ಪಲ್ಮಿಡಿಉಂ ಮೂ ವಳ್ಳಿಉಂ ಕೊಟ್ಟಾರ್ .............  


	          ‘namah  śri:mat …...kadambpan…….kakutsthabhaTTo:ran 
	        aLe………….ell bʰaTa:riya: ……sutange………vijaarasange 
	        ‘ba:Lagaccu’ palmiDium mu:LuvaLLium koTTa:r. 

The chalukya’s of Badami (ba:da:mi) of the 7th century A.D. the texts of inscriptions which used to factual tend to become more and more literary. The earliest glimpses of kannada poetry and found the short verses composed in ba:da:mi and sravaNa beLago:La. The thaTTukoTTi inscription of kappe arebhaTTa, a hero under the cha:lukya’s of ba:da:mi describes in the native metre (tripadi-three lines unit). The heroism and the courrage of the warrior is simple, powerful, poetry.

 
	Ex:-  ಸಾಧುಗೆ ಸಾಧು ಮಾಧುರ್ಯ್ಯಂಗೆ ಮಾಧುರ್ಯನ್ 
	         ಬಾಧಿಪ್ಪ ಕಲಿಗೆ ಕಲಿಯುಗ ವಿಪರೀತನ್ 
	         ಮಾಧವನೀತನ್ ಪೆರನಲ್ಲ !

        	        sa:dʰuge sa:dʰu ma:dʰuryange ma:dʰuryan
        	       ba:dʰippa kalige kaliyuga vipari:tan
        	       ma:dʰavani:tan peranalla.  

The inscriptional records in kannada are found through out Karnataka and in the areas adjacent to the present day Karnataka like Maharastra, Andhrapradhesh, Tamilnadu and Kerala and they are found upto the end of the 19th century A.D. A few inscription of the early period are in verse and even at this stage, it is seen that they are written in the Sanskrit material system like aks̡aravritta. An independent additional feature is the providing of a second letter alliteration, which became a jealously guarded prosodical feature in kannada poems. This is not found in Sanskrit metres, it continued upto the second decade of the 20th century. On the whole the large bulk of the inscriptions upto the 10th century A.D. is in prose, occasionally using high literary style.

LITERARY WORKS/CLASSICAL LITERARY WORKS

The early literary activities in kannada were started by the Jains. The next is vi:raśaivas and vaidika’s (both literary works are called as other name is devotional literature) and the next is modern literature.

The earliest available standardized and conventional literary work is kavira:jama:rga, produced in the court of the Rastrakuta monarch nripatunga (A.D. 814-880) Kavira:jama:rga is mainly work on poetics following Dandi’s Sanskrit work ka:vya:dars̡a except when he was dealing with kannada grammer, the author of kavira:jama:rga (sreevijaya) has entirely based himself on ka:vya:dars̡a. It has three chapters.

The next is vaDDa:ra:dhane by shivakotyacharya. It is based on katha:ko:śa (Sanskrit) of Harisena a compilation of 19 stories preaching Jainism. The language contains features of preold kannada. The language is highly developed on making use of Sanskrit and prakrit (apabhramsa) words.

JAINA PERIOD/ LITERATURE

 
The early literary activities in kannada started   by the Jains.  Pampa (A.D. 940) is considered as the first classical poet of kannada wrote,

	i)   a:dipura:Na 
	ii)  pampabha:rata/vikrama:rjuna vijayam

a:dipura:Na is based on pu:rva pura:Na of jina-se:na:ca:rya. Though he belongs to Jaina religion, he wrote vikrama:rjuna vijayam as laukika ka:vya (lit. wordly poem) and the other, a:gama ka:vya (spiritual poem), narrating the cyclic events of the life of Adijina, the first Tirthankara (ti:rthańkara). Pampa has followed the l:iterary traditions of the classics and gives 18 kinds of descriptions, prescribed for maha:ka:vya (epic). He describes himself as a person of hitamita mrudu vacana. ‘the one who possesgood respectable speech’ and he confirms this. His example of wirting a laukika ka:vya and a:gamaka:vya is followed by the later poets also. His language, which he calls as the variety of kannada prevalent in and around puligere, is a harmonious blend of Sanskrit and kannada. He followed the campu style (mixture of prose and poetry). Where prose and verse intermingle as the occasion demands.

DEVOTIONAL PERIOD/ LITERATURE

The greater part of devotional literature of kannada are the two products of two great religious movements one vi:rasaiva and the other vaisNava.

Vi:raśaiva literature/Vacana literature (12th century):

Vi:raśaiva movement was focusing its attention mostly on social reform and the literature came in only as a part of achieving the goal of social equality and eradicating the social evil of untouchabality. Hitherto, the literary attainments and enjoyments were pastime of a chosen few and all narrations and descriptions were centered round the mythological figures, far-removed from worldly lives. Besides this the language used by such poets also has not the one easily comprehensible to the common mass. Vi:raśaiva’s used a new format of expression called vacanas, giving up the old Sanskrit material system, which enabled even the lowest of the low to express the lofty ideas and his inner most feelings in simple terms. This transformation had an electrifying effect on every person on the period and one finds many vacanas composed by the individuals of the then considered lowest strata of the society. Each individual vacanas are surcharged with utmost devotion to Lord Śiva.

Devara dasimayya/jedara dasimayya is dated to the early years of 11th century A.D. The galaxy of vi:rasaiva leadership consisted of the personages like Allama prabhu, Basaveswara, Akkamahadevi, Siddarama chennabasavanna, Sakalesha madarasa, Ambigara coudayya and others whose contribution to kannada literature in the form of vacanas is very significant. This century introduced the vacana style in simple prose, intelligible to common people.

Vais̡Nava pantʰa/da:sa sahitya (13th a.d. to 16th a.d.)

The harida:sas were responsible for a vaisNava revival in Karnataka Naraharitirtha, the earliest known Haridasa lived towards the end of the 13th century A.D. The Madhvacharya’s philosophy seems to have been an inspiration to the movement. But far from being philosophical, the hymns (devotional songs) of Haridasas were singing minstrels who were followed by masses of devotees. Their hymns because of their simplicity and touching music became popular not only in Karnataka but even outside and became catalysts in a vaishnava revival. Written in an enchantingly simple kannada, these hymns directly addressed the people and drew them to the glory of the lord. Vyasaraja, Purandaradasa and Kanakadasa are most outstanding composers of hymns among the Haridasas. The songs of Haridasas have a special place in the devotional literature of kannada as well as musical literature of south India. Purandara as the pitamaha of Karnataka classical music. Some of the other important poets of this period are: Sreepadaraya, Nanjunda, Ratnakaravarni, Chikkadevaraja, Tirumalarya, Helavanakatte girijamma, Kumara vyasa, Lakshmeesha etc.,,,

MODERN LITERATURE

Even though, the beginning of modern kannada literature is to be A.D. 1900 in actual sense, it should be the early decedes of the 19th century. This formative period and its activities are mentioned below.

As in all other parts of India Karnataka also came under the western influence through English education. Kannada scholars were introduced to the English poets like Chasar, Shakeshpere, Milton, Wordsworth, Shelly, Keats, Arnold and novelists and other fiction writers.

In the princely state of mysore, Sreekanthayya.B.M took the leadership in putting the modern kannada poetry on sound footing. His translation of English poems gave an impetus to many of his students to write in the same fashion, the original poems in kannada K.V. Puttappa and D.R. Bendre are the two famous poets of modern kannada. The former uses a high flow style and his poems always exhibit a leaning towards spirituality, Vedanta(ve:da:nta) and love of nature. The later uses the colloquial style of Dharwar kannada and in addition to the natural poetic philosophy, emphasises on the life man in this mundane world. K.V.Puttappa (Sree ra:ma:yaNa darśanam) D.V. Gundappa, T.N.Shreekanthayya, the mid-thirties of this century, which is now known as Navodaya period (Navo:daya yuga). Shivaramakarant, K.V. Puttappa, V.K. Gokak are the well known creative writers. For a short period the writers holding progressive ideals made their mark in kannada literature. When the kannada poetry came to a stand still after the progress made by the Navodaya school after the brief spell of progressive ideology. The Navya school (navya pantha) (lit-neo-modernism) eclipsed the other two schools, they changed the format of the poems rebelling against the set norms, setting poetry free from the fetters of music. The language of the poetry became full of symbols, and the ordinary reader could not understand. V.K. Gokak, Gopalakrishna Adiga, B.C. Ramachandrasharma, A.K. Ramanujam etc., are some of the important poets of this school. Chennavirakanavi and G.S.Shivarudrappa, though are the contemporaries who came under the influence of Navya, maintain their own stand, between Navodaya and Navya schools. The Bandaya/Dalita (baNda:ya/dalita) schools of writers came to prominence in the post Navya period. (the educational facilities were extended to all the people of the lower strata began to realize that none of the upper class poets of poetry is capable of understanding their plight sympathetically and they have come to the fore front, criticizing and questioning the set norms of the society and its dealings. This school of writers who came to prominence in the post-navya period are known as baNDaya/dalita school) P.Lankesh, Siddalingayya, Devanur mahadeva, Chandrashekara patil, Channanna valikar …. Are important of the dalit/banDaya authors.

The written literature of kannada has been enriched with almost every genre of literature like poetry, short-story, novel, essay, travelogue, biography, auto biography, drama, one act play, radio play, street play, prose, ballad, lyric, criticism, research, textual criticism and so on.

AWARDS LIST

 
Kannada has earned so far seven Jnanapeetha awards and a number of central sahitya academy, State Sahitya academy and Trust awards.

National Sahitya Academy Awards

	1.  Jnanapeetha Awards
	2.  Central Sahitya Academy
         	3.   Rastra Kavi Prasati (Madras Govt.)
         	4.   Rao Bahadur Prasasti (British Govt.)
         	5.   Manushri Prasasti (Attimabbe Smaraka: Rastriya Puraskara)

State Sahitya Academy Awards(Govt.)

         	1.  Pampa Prasasti
         	2.  State Literature Academy Awards
         	3.  State Academy Literature Prasasti	
         	4.  Anupama Prasasti (Karnataka Sahitya Academy)
         	5.  Rajyotsava Prasasti (Karnataka Govt.)
         	6.  Great Novelist Prasasti (Kannada Sahitya Parishattu)
               	     Golden Jublee Function.
         	7.  Chavundaraya  Prashasti (Kannada Sahitya Parishat)
         	8.  Dana Chintamani Attimabbe Prasasti
              	     (Karnataka State Governament) For  Womens only
         	9.  Karnataka Sahitya Academy          

Universities and  Private Organisation Awards

          	1.  Pu.Ti Na. Sri. Smaraka Bahumana (Mysore University)
          	2.  Vardamana Prasasti (Karnataka University)
          	3.  Basavaraju Prasasti (Dr.  L. Basavaraju Pratistana)
	     State Level Prasasti
          	4.  Sahitya Prasasti (B.M.Sri. Smaraka Pratistana)
	     Savitramma Dattinidhi Sahitya Prasati
          	5.  M.V. Prasasti (M. Vishweshvaraiah Eng. Pratistana)
              	     For The Great Kritis Of The Decade
          	6.  Ambedkar Prasasti (Gorur Pratistana)
          	7.  Tirumalamba Prasasti (Nanjangud Tirumalamba Pratistana)
          	8.  Chidananda Prasasti (For Research work)
          	9.  Gorur Prasasti (Gorur Ramaswami Iyengar Smaraka)
          	10.  Shambha Prasasti (Karnataka Sangha – Shivamoga)
          	11.  Devaraja Bahaddur Prasasti
          	12.  Shivaramakaranta Prasasti (Shivaramakaranta Pratistana)
          	13.  Niranjana Prasasti (Shivarama Karanta Study Centre)
          	14.  Chi.Na. Mangala Prasasti (Attimabbe Pratistana)
          	15.  G.S.S. Prasasti
          	16.  A.N. Krishnarao Prasasti (A.N. Krishnarao Pratistana)
          	17.  Ranna Sahitaya Prasasti
          	18.  Katha Prasati
          	19.  Prof. Bhusanoor Mutt Prasasti
          	20.  Bharatiya Bhasha Prasasti

LIST OF THE JNANAPEETHA AWARDS

CENTRAL SAHITYA ACADEMY WINNERS

 
	RASTRA KAVI PRASATI (MADRAS GOVT.)

		1.  M. GOVINDA PAI
		2.  KUVEMPU

	RAO BAHADUR PRASASTI ( BRITISH GOVT.)

		1.  R. NARASIMHACHAR

	MANUSHRI PRASASTI (ATTIMABBE SMARAKA: RASTRIYA PURASKARA)

		1.  SA.SHI. MARULAIAH

	PAMPA PRASASTI WINNERS		

		1.  K.V. PUTTAPPA
		2.  T.N. SHREEKANTHAYYA	
		3.  SHIVARAMAKARANTA
		4.  S.S. BHOOSANUR MATHA	
		5.  P.T. NARASIMHACHAR	
		6.  A.N. MURTHYRAYA
		7.  M. GOPALAKRISHNA ADIGA
		8.  SEDIYAPU KRISHNABHATTA
		9.  M.M. KALBURGI
		10.  K.S. NARASIMHASWAMY
		11.  S.S. SHIVARUDRAPPA
		12.  D. JAVAREGOWDA
		13.  CHANNAVEERA KANAVI
		14.  PURNACHANDRA TEJASVI
		15.  L. BASAVARAJU

STATE LITERATURE ACADEMY WINNERS

 
	STATE ACADEMY LITERATURE PRASASTI	

		1.  DEVANUR MAHADEVA
		2.  H.S. BILIGIRI
		3.  N. BASAVARADHYA
		4.  GEETHA NAGABUSHAN
		5.  B.A.SANADI
		6.  RAMACHANDRA KULAKARNI
		7.  K.T. GATTI
		8.  SUNANDA BELAGAVKAR
		9.  ARAVINDA MALAGATTI
		10.  VEENA SHANTESHWAR
		11.  DE. JAVAREGOWDA
		12.  V. SITARAMASH
		13.  MIRJI ANNARAYA
		14.  TA.RA. SUBBARAO
		15.  SIDDAYYA PURANIK
		16.  HA.MA. NAYAK
		17.  G.S. SHIVARUDRAPPA
		18.  M. GOPALAKRISHNA ADIGA
		19.  M.M. KULAKARNI
		20.  CHANDRAKANTA KUSANOORA
		21.  Dr. D.S.S. BHAVA
		22.  KAM. SHA. LOKAPURA
		23.  Dr. RAJASHEKAR NEERAMANI
		24.  ARYAMBA PATTABHI
		25.  M.N. JAVARIAH
		26.  Dr. C.N. RAMACHANDRAN
		27.  KUM. VEERABHADRAPPA
		28.  Dr. RAMEGOWDA
		29.  MALATI PATTANA SHETTY
		30.  G.VENKATASUBBAIAH
		31.  VIJAYA SASANURA
		32.  VEERENDRA SIMPI
		33.  Dr. VIJAYA
		34.  BOLUVAR MAHAMUD
		35.  P.S. RAMANUJAM
		36.  CHANNANNA VALIKARA
		37.  Dr. VIJAYA DABBE
		38.  Dr. SIDDALINGA PATTANA SHETTY
		39.  MALLIKA
		40.  SHRINIVASA HAVANOORA
		41.  GURULINGA KAPADE
		42.  B. BRAMHAPPA
		43.  VAIDEHI
		44.  SA.SHI. MARULAYYA

	ANUPAMA PRASASTI (KARNATAKA SAHITYA ACADEMY)

		1.  M.K. INDIRA

	RAJYOTSAVA PRASASTI (KARNATAKA GOVT.)

		1.  CHANDRASHEKAR PATIL
		2.  SAA.RA.   ABUBKAR
		3.  Dr. SUMATINDRA NADIG
		4.  SIDDAIAH PURANIK

	GREAT NOVELIST PRASASTI (KANNADA SAHITYA PARISHATTU)
	GOLDEN JUBLEE FUNCTION

		1.  TA.RA.SUBBARAO

	CHAVUNDARAYA  PRASHASTI (KANNADA SAHITYA PARISHAT)

		1.  TA.SU. SHAMARAYA
		2.  Dr. HAM.PA. NAGARAJAYYA
		3.  S.V. PARAMESHWARA BHAT
		4.  Prof. G. BRAMHAPPA
		5.  Dr. L. BASAVARAJU
	

	DANA CHINTAMANI ATTIMABBE PRASASTI (KARNATAKA STATE GOVERNAMENT) FOR WOMENS

		1.  SHANTADEVI MALAVADA
		2.  Dr. C. ANNAPOORNAMMA
		3.  JAYALAKSHMI SRINIVASA
		4.  MALLIKA
		5.  KAMALA HUM.PA.NA
		6.  PA. ABUBKAR
		7.  T. SUNANDAMMA
		8.  VAIDEHI
		9.  GEETA NAGABHUSHANA

	KARNATAKA SAHITYA ACADEMY

		1.  U.R. ANANTAMURTHY
		2.  S.L. BAIRAPPA
		3.  YASHAVANTA CHITTALA 

	PU.TI NA.  SMARAKA BAHUMANA (MYSORE UNIVERSITY)

		1.  CHIDANANDA MURTHY		

	VARDAMANA PRASASTI (KARNATAKA UNIVERSITY)

		1.  M.M. KALABURGI
		2.  MINU GUNDI
		3.  KUM. VEERABHADRAPPA
		4.  T.P. ASHOKA
		5.  TULASI VENUGOPAL
		6.  V. CHITTALA
		7.  HA. MA. NAYAKA
		8.  L.S. SHESHAGIRI RAO

	BASAVARAJU PRASASTI (Dr.  L. BASAVARAJU PRATISTANA)
	STATE LEVEL PRASASTI

		1.  KI.RAM. NAGARAJU

	SAHITYA PRASASTI (B.M.SRI. SMARAKA PRATISTANA)
	Savitramma Dattinidhi Sahitya Prasati

		1.  SHAM. GU. BIRADARA
	
	M.V. PRASASTI (M. VISHWESHVARAIAH ENG. PRATISTANA)
	FOR THE GREAT KRITIS OF THE DECADE

		1.  SANGAMESHA  SAVADATTI MUT
		2.  M.S. UMESH
		3.  MALLIKA GHANTI

	AMBEDKAR PRASASTI (GORUR PRATISTANA)
	
		1.  BARAGUR RAMACHANDRAPPA

	TIRUMALAMBA PRASASTI (NANJANGUD TIRUMALAMBA PRASASTI)

		1.  MAITREYA PUSHPA (HINDI KRITI)

	CHIDANANDA PRASASTI (FOR  RESEARCH WORK)

		1.  G.S. GAYI
		2.  Dr.  SEDIYAPU KRISHNA BHAT
		3.  R.C. HIRE MUTT
		4.  Dr. SHADAKSHAR SHETTAR

	GORUR PRASASTI (GORUR RAMASWAMI IYENGAR SMARAKA)

		1.  S.V. PARAMESHWARA BHAT
		2.  DE. JAVAREGOWDA
		3.  K.S. NARASIMHA SWAMY
		4.  A.N. MURTHY RAO
		5.  VASANTA KUMAR PATIL
		6.  G.S. SHIVARUDRAPPA


	SHAMBHA PRASASTI (KARNATAKA SANGHA – SHIVAMOGA)

		1.  A.N. MURTHY RAO
		2.  CHIDANANDA MURTHY

	DEVARAJA BAHADDUR PRASASTI

		1.  UTTANGI CHENNAPPA (SAMVADANE)
		2.  MRJI ANNARAYA
		3.  M. CHIDANANDA MURTHY
		4.  G.P. RAJARATNAM
		5.  T.V. VENKATACHALASHSTRY
		6.  K.S. NARASIMHASWAMY

	SHIVARAMAKARANTA PRASASTI (SHIVARAMAKARANTA PRATISTANA)

		1.  K.P. POORNACHANDRA TEJASVI
		2.  Dr. T. GOVINDARAJU
		3.  SHANTINATHA DESAI
		4.  YASHVANTA CHITTALA

	NIRANJANA PRASASTI (SHIVARAMA KARANTA STUDY CENTRE)

		1.  YASHAVANTA CHITTALA
		2.  SHANTINATHA DESAI

	CHI.NA. MANGALA PRASASTI (ATTIMABBE PRATISTANA)

		1.  HAM.PA. NAGARAJAIAH

	G.S.S. PRASASTI

		1.  D.R. NAGARAJU

	A.N. KRISHNARAO PRASASTI (A.N. KRISHNARAO PRATISTANA)

		1.  VYASARAYA BALLALA
		2.  G.S. AAMURA
		3.  M. CHIDANANDA MURTHY

	RANNA SAHITAYA PRASASTI

		1.  CHANDRASHEKARA KAMBARA

	KATHA PRASATI

		1.  VAIDEHI

	PROF. BHUSANOOR MUTT PRASASTI

		1.  G.S. SHIVARUDRAPPA (1997)

	BHARATIYA BHASHA PRASASTI

		1.  YASHAVANTA CHITTALA

	MASTI PRASASTI WINNERS
	MASTI PRASASTI (Dr. MASTI VENKATESH IYENGAR SAHITYA SAMITHI)

		1.   YASHAVANTA CHITTALA			(STORIES – 1993)
		2.   U.R. ANANTAMURTHY		        	(STORIES – 1994)
		3.   K.S. NARASIMHASWAMY			(KAVYA – 1995)
		4.   S.L. BAIRAPPA				(KADAMBARI – 1996)
		5.   GIRISH KARNAD               			(NATAKA – 1997)
      		      CHANDRASHEKAR KAMBARA
		6.   HA. MA. NAYAKA          		             	(ANKANA SAHITYA 
                                                                                    		– 1998)
		7.   A.S. MURTHY RAO			(PRABHANDHA – 1999)
		8.   G.S. SHIVARUDRAPPA                           	(GADYA SAHITYA, 
     		      					KAVYA –   2000)
		9.   M. CHIDANANDA MURTHY			(SAMSHODHANE 
                                                                                    		– 2001)
		10. L.S. SHESHAGIRI RAO			(VIMARSHE – 2002)
		11. D. JAVAREGOWDA
		12. CHIDANANDA MURTHY

GRAMMARS – KANNADA

Kannada has a grammatical tradition. It begins with shabda smruti (śabdasmruti) the first chapter of the work on poetics, kavyavalokana (ka:vya:valo:kana) by Nagavarma- II (c.1150 A.D) and continues with the same authors Karnataka bhasha bhushana (karna:Taka bha:śa:bhu:saNa) the later is in Sanskrit, the most highly respected work of kannada grammer is keshiraja’s shabdamanidarpana (śabdamaNi darpaNa) (1260 A.D.) which describes the language in 322 su:tra:s arranged in 8 (eight) chapters. Bhattakalank’s Karnataka Shabdanushasanum (karna:Taka sabda:nusa:sanum) (1604 A.D.) in Sanskrit is another grammer. Seetaramayya M.V. and Kushalappagowda work contain good other views of the classical kannada grammatical tradition.