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The vowels in Juang are /i/, /e/ and /E/ which are front unrounded; /a/ which is centrally unrounded and /u/, /o/ and /O/ which are back rounded. Of these /E/ and /o/ do not seem to show any significant phonemic contrasts, but they are in free variation with /e/ and /O/ respectively.
aLabOg / aLabog orphan igORO / igorO suicide ajOtO / ajotO jail kOngkO / kongkO neck koLgrae / kilograe tigress pOlOngga / polOngga leaf carton
leberO / lEbErO or lEberO sleep keLeny / kelEny or kEleny wound Toke / tOkE cheat dusen / dusEn male babeke / babEkE or babEke thinks
Some speakers go for these kinds of alternations all the time, whereas some others do it sometimes.
Since(?), /e/ and /O/ are commonly found in the language and /E/ and /o/ seem to be the deviant forms of these segments, we treat /e/ and /O/ as basic [This is not very convincing since e and O do not belong to the same degree of aperture! And what does mean “commonly found”?]. Thus, the basic vowels in Juang are /i/, /e/, /a/, /u/ and /O/. The phonemic contrasts between these segments are given below. Examples:
i – u kirO kurO i – O uLi uLO i – e dinyO denyO i – a ni this na grandmother aji aja u – a sasu susu e-O, e-a, O-a?
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Note: The only place where O and o bring contrast is kunyO vs. kuNo. MEANING? Here, however, the nature of the nasal could be a factor also.
Vowel length is not phonemic in this language. It is rather taken as an instantiation of the speaker’s mood, viz. impatience, irritation or excitement. Normally in the imperatives, vowel lengthening is noticed.
kO shave kOO! shave! unO keep uunO! keep!
Sometimes, borrowing encourage vowel length, e.g. jail – jeel.
In case of borrowing, vowel addition and vowel deletion in the initial, medial and final positions are noticed, as in iskuulu school, senkle welcome.
The only constituent, where vowel lengthening seems to bring difference the semantic import is in the word bO which has three meanings: It can be used as an instrumental case marker to mean ‘by means of’ as a locative case marker to mean ‘at’ and thirdly with a little lengthening it means ‘blow’. However, the meaning of bO is so much dependent on the context that, even if the vowel is lengthened because of the speaker’s excitement, say in the word inyabOO, it has to mean ‘at the house, and not ‘blow the house’.
Note that O when occurring word-finally with lengthening does not alter with /o/ as we have mentioned earlier. For instance kOO ‘shave’ will never become koo. This is now an argument for underlying O.
The two vowels /u/ and /i/ have a tendency towards glide formation in this language, when they precede another vowel. Examples:
arOkia – arOkya tutuinOman - tutwinOman uaLi – waLi child kui – kwi get kua – kwa handful dui – dwi two bua – bwa paddy buitani - bwitani chief’s wife
All vowels can become diphthongized when they are followed by any palatal stops or palatal nasals. Following examples are illustrative.
any / ayny I dencerO / deynceirO had come niny / niyny we Olej / OLEyj? pucuka / puicwika ?? boil ObgOj / ObgOyj? kill
However, when there is a vowel gemination of the same kind (this is nothing else than a long vowel!!), this is not allowed, e.g.
sOOjO - *sOijO buutu - *bwutu
Vowel nasalization as an instance of allophonic variation is another interesting phenomenon in Juang (STYLE?). In Juang, all vowels have nasalized counterparts occurring either before or after a nasal consonant. This vowel nasalization behaves mainly like a stylistic variation which could be attributed to sociolinguistic variability.
kuTu˜mO wife
In combination with other consonants nasalization is not acceptable:
kib / *ki˜b make kuTij / *ku˜Ti˜j
However, it should be noted that nasal consonants of the preceding syllable allow vowel nasalisation.
guNtiae / gu˜Ntiae / guNtia˜e / guNtiae˜
As nasalization, in most of the cases, is used as a device for stylistic variation, it cannot be predictable in a given environment. However, though very limited, some examples might instantiate a phonemic status of nasalization in this language. Consider the following examples for illustration.
tOOrO I fastened tO˜O˜rO elephant’s trunk kOnia marriageable kOONia safe
Consonants in Juang are distinct from their Indo-Aryan and Dravidian counterparts in not allowing aspirates sounds in the inventory. Even in case of borrowing, the internal pressure of the phonemic structure of the language causes deaspiration all the time, though exception to the aspirated voiceless velar stop is sometimes noticed EXAMPLE. Unlike other South Asian languages, not all the consonants are allowed in the final position of a word in this language. Glottalization is optional and is very often noticed in the word final position.
| bilabial | dental | alveolar | retroflex | palatal | velar |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| p | t | T | c | k | |
| b | d | D | j | g | |
| m | n | N | ny | ng | |
| s | I | L | |||
| r |
k – g kOng know gOn weave k – c kOke shaves cake taste c – j cake taste jOge watch T – t Toke cheat tOke tired t – d tOke tired dOkO sit p – b page break bOge command b – m bOge command mOtej nose r – l rOge pour lage continue
Retroflex stops are rarely found word-finally; in this position they vary with their alveolar stops.
keLenymOD eye disease (cf. variant keLenymOd)
Retroflex nasals, however, do occur and contrast with the other nasals.
kOn kON
Your old version: In some cases, contrast between dental and retroflex is not found word-finally, but in most of the cases they do contrast.
OsOmOt *OsOmOT guTugat *guTugaT
Palatal consonants are not found to be in free variation with a velar consonant word finally, though they do not exhibit any contrast either .
OLej OLOg kuTij
Word-medial /L/ is often replaced by /R/ as in cOncOLO -> cOncORO ‘quickly’ or kiLOg -> kiROg . However, we never heard OLpO as *ORpO ‘few’ or turaLi as *turaRi ‘sword’ or buLug as *buRug ‘spade with a straight narrow blade’.
/R/ and /D/ are very often found to be in free variation as attested in words like kOsORa / kOsODa ‘slippery’. This free variation holds in Oriya as well.
Some variation has also been found between /R/ and /r/, as attested in aRiki / ariki ‘??’. However, we never heard uaRi as *uari ‘child’ or kapuri as *kapuRi ‘skull’.
This shows that these alternations are highly arbitrary and the language is in transition to Oriya system.
The consonant /h/ very rarely occurs in Juang. Even in case of loan words, there is a heavy pressure from the phonemic structure of the language to delete it which is evident in examples such as hati -> ati ‘elephant’. Therefore, /h/ acannot be set up as a phoneme.
The contrast between voiced and voiceless stops is not found word-finally. When the word ends with a glottalised consonant, both voiced and voiceless stops occur in free variation. Like nasalization in case of vowels, even glottalisation in case of consonants looks like a sociolinguistic variable. Consider the examples in which the distinction between voiced and voiceless stop is neutralized.
selOk / selOg? dog lubOk / lubOg? veil sOb / ?sOp sOj / ?sOc
These alternations are not like /e/ - /E/ or /O/ - /o/ changes because as we have shown above, /k/ - /g/, /p/ - /b/ are separate phonemes in the language whereas /E/ and /o/ are just the deviants. Secondly, wherever one hears /E/ or /o/ sounds, one can position /e/ or /O/ there as the underlying phoneme. This is not true of voiced-voiceless contrast. Though, the voiceless sounds becoming voiced is very often noticed in the language, the reverse is not normally found as the question marks in the beginning of the word sOp and sOc show which are not otherwise found in the language as separate words. Some more examples of the same type showing inacceptability because of devoicing are given below with their acceptable counterparts.
Og / *Ok carry a baby ONOg / *ONOk? bend OsOmOt / *OsOmOd akOb / *akOp aROlak / arOlag? aNDramOD / *aNDramOt
This suggests devoicing is not really allowed in the language which sounds counterintuitive, given the fact that, normally, the voiceless sounds are more basic and are often posited as archi segment cross-linguistically (devoicing has nothing to do with that). We have to consult with some more data to strengthen and validate this fact? about Juang and a reason to explain such occurrence.
As the data shows below, the voicing and devoicing of segments word-finally looks really arbitrary. This means that we have two phoneme sets in final position: one set can alternate, the other not.
Oij / Oic yes akOb / akOp ash, sometimes dej / deic?
Homorganic nasal + consonant clusters are very frequent in Juang. However, there are words where a nasal precedes a stop of another place of articulation. Let us now take a look at the process of homorganic nasal formation and the process of assimilation. Homorganic nasal formation is very often noticed in Juang. However, homorganic nasal formation as a rule fails to apply sometimes when a nasals precedes a palatal or velar stop. Examples where homorganic nasal formation is followed by the language are given below:
ngk ngg Onggi shirt ekOlOngg now (not simple nasal ng?) nyc panycgOTO five sections kOnycelan girl nyj kOnyje arrange NT eNTej small ND aNDara white nt nd mp mb
The assimilation of nasals to the following stop is productive, consider full reduplication of verbs, without fail, the homorganic nasal formation is adhered to, e.g. jim + jim -> jinyjim ‘eating’.
The examples above and this example show that the palatal consonant has the potentiality to turn a nasal into a palatal nasal.
Next to palatal comes the velar, which violates the rule. Similarly, examples like On + gOr -> OnggOr show that the velar consonant very much has the potentiality to influence the preceding nasal into a homorganic nasal.
This rule is violated in examples such as
aynykikke aynpete unkuLO ingsa ninyba ninyte ningge unkuLO ‘start’ kinmingta ‘behind’
This shows that if the palatal does not change, then it occurs either with the bilabial or with the velar.
The word kinmingta ‘behind’ poses two very interesting problems for the homorganic nasal formation as a process of assimilation -
Following explanation not necessary: it is simply because of polymorphemy.
Gemination of consonants is normally found word-medially in dissyllabic words, or if the word has more than two syllables, it is found between the last and pre-last syllable of the word.
ape / appe you pl. (cf. apperiki ‘you all’) lubO / lubbO greed kOkOm / kOkkOm arrow dukO / dukkO sorrow peTe / peTTe ??
Sibilants and the liquid /r/ are excluded from gemination:
dusO / *dussO bOerO / *bOerrO
However, the alveolar liquid /l/ is allowed for gemination, e.g. putula / putulla . In the beginning of a word, the consonant cannot be geminated, e.g. bO /*bbO .
Sometimes, gemination causes three consonants to come in a row in plurisyllabic words, and there multiple consonants are allowed as onset gemination or onset clusters.
Gemination is not allowed in full reduplication for ‘simplification rule’ works well in the language . Probably It is not allowed because it is more than one morpheme.
gOg + gOg -> gOgOg / *gOggOg ‘take’,
Let us look at the syllable structure of Juang now.
The minimal syllable structure of a word could be just a vowel which is always hosted by a word. Examples:
a of, at (as in inya ‘of the house’) u but i be
These monosyllabic entities allow vowel lengthening which is not phonemic in Juang (see 1.1). Though optional deletion of the vowels is at times permissible by the syllable structure of the language, in such cases optional retention is often preferred than not. Other combination which are allowed as monosyllabic words are
VC am VV ai˜ VVC iam CV ni CVC Dak CVV diO CVVC gO˜ak
In monosyllabic words, onset or coda clusters are normally not found, except for some loan words. We will get to these loan words later.
The structure of disyllabic words is
V.CV Ole V.CVV Orei V.CVC OmOr VV.VC Oek NOT TRUE VV.CV aera VV.CVC alilang NOT TRUE VC.CV aNTu VC.CVC OnsOm VC.CCV aNDra CV.CV kOte CV.CVV kamae CV.CVC lutur CVC.CV kOngkO CVC.CVV langgOe CVC.CVC tubrir CVV.V kOeO CVV.VC mOeang CVV.CV sOadO CVVC.CV muintO CVVC.CVC kuingkar CCV.CV pruti CCV.CVV trutiO
Trisyllabic words attest the following patterns:
V.CV.CV ariga V.CV.CVC asimOr V.CVC.CV acingka VC.CV.CV OmbaTO CV.CV.CV kanati CV.CV.CVC barOsing CV.CVV.V sOmOeO CV.CVV.CV kaniare CV.CVC.CVC lerangtOr CV.CVC.CCV sumundrO CVV.V.CV bOeOsO CVV.CV.CV bOisakO CVV.CV.CVC kuirOsong CVC.CV.CV gOndONO CVC.CV.CVV lajkurei CVC.CV.CVC kOngkulang CVC.CVC.CVC kunyjimdak CCV.CV.CV srabOnO CCVC.CVC.CVC gringdaksOr
One example for a quadrisyllabic structure:
VC.VC.CVC.CV OmOrjObra mucus of the eye
As can be seen in the tables above, we observe coda and onset consonant clusters in plurisyllabic words, contrary to our observations in the monosyllabic structure.
1 VC.CCV.CVC aNDra white 2 CVC.CCV cendra rag 3 CVC.CCVC banggrip naked 4 CV.CVC.CCV sumundrO sea
Example (1) clearly instantiates that this language allows a CC cluster either as an onset or as a coda. The possibilities could be either C.CC or CC.C.
CCV clusters are allowed in the language as the following example illustrates:
CCV.CV pruti universe (not your example OmOrjObra) CCV.CVV trutiO third
Since the combination pr is allowed, dr clusters are allowed as well in analogy. In this case the syllabic structure would be
CV.CCV aN.Dra
This shows, a bilabial stop can cluster with an alveolar lateral sound to form a cluster as an onset in a plurisyllabic word.
However, it should be noted that words with onset clusters are borrowed from Oriya in most of the cases; the only exceptions are Trelei thunder and gringDaksOr sweat (Origin?). Because of the internal pressure of the language, sometimes the initial clusters in these borrowed words are broken by vowel insertion, e.g. pruti -> puruti or by metathesis srabOnO -> sOrbOnO.
Another medial cluster is found in the word pOmpLO ‘loose’ which raises the same questions as to whether to treat mpl as m.pl or mp.l. Notice that this combination has the same place and manner of articulation as br has. Hence, we can conclude that the syllabic structure of the word would be CVC.CCV pOm.plO.
So far, we have not notice this onset cluster in monosyllabic words.
The third kind of medial clustering seen in language is kenggra cucumber. As this language attests nasalised vowel as a coda (cf. keny chop), and r in any case combines with a velar stop to form a cluster as the above examples show, there is a possibility that this is an example of onset clustering.
A noun phrase may consist of a single noun, pronoun (personal, demonstrative,...), adjective or numeral, or of a combination of these. Determiners precede the head. Examples for combinations:
As can be seen in the tables Numeral + adjective + noun (1) muinto ka~La luko one bind person 'a blind man' Determiner phrase + noun (2) uali-a gata-ro child-Obl voice-3s 'a child's voice' (Interrogative) pronoun + noun (3) maNDi konter-De which bird -Art 'which bird?'
Nouns may be marked for the following categories (all by means of suffixes): - possessor, - definiteness, - number, - case.
Full structure: noun + possessor + article + number + case
There is one restriction on combination: the category "possessor" and the category "number" don't occur together. Besides this exception the categories may be freely combined.
possessor + article + case:
(4) aN-a bilei-N-d-a Is-Obl cat-Is-Art-Obl 'of my cat' Article + number + case: (5) kutur-Di-ki-te frog-Art-Pl-Obj 'to the frogs' Gender: Nouns are not marked for gender.
Possession may be doubly marked: first by the preposed possessor phrase, marked by the genitive -a, and second by the possessor suffix. There is obligatory agreement between the two.
(6) aN-a oba N Is-Gen father-Is 'my father'
The possessor suffixes occur with all sorts of noun (even with inanimate loanwords,) but they are not obligatory. Kinshipterms nearly always have one, whereas inanimate objects are rarely marked by a possessor suffix.
(7) aN-a iti-N-de
Is-Gen hand-Is-Art
'my hand'
(8) aN-a ungii-N-de
Is-Gen shirt-Is-Art
'my shirt'
(9) am-a couki-m-De
2s-Gen chair-2s-Art
'your chair '
obaN 'my father'
Possessive suffixes
1s -N 2s -m 3s -Do
1d -mba 2d -pa 3d -Do-kia
1p -nin~ 2p -pe 3p -Do-ki
Remarks
-The suffix for 2s is -om after stems ending on a consonant.
am-a seloN-om-De
'your dog'
kam-om
'your work'
The suffix for 3 person is identical with one of the articles and has the variant -ro after vowels as well.
Example paradigm (-De and -Re are forms of an article): 'my/ your ...brother' 'my / your ...leg' 1s aN-a kaka-N ijiN-in-De 1d niNb-a kaka-N -de ijiN-iNba-Re 1p niN-a kaka-N ijiN-inin-De 2s am-a kaka-m ijiN-am-Re 2d ap-a kaka-pa-Re ijiN-pa-Re 2p ap-e kaka-pe-Re ijiN-pe-Re 3s ar-a kaka-Ro ijiN-Do 3d ijiN-Do-kia 3p aroki-a kaka-ro-ki ijiN-Do-ki
Definiteness is marked by two suffixes, the articles -do and -de (Q: retroflex?). After vowels they are realised as -ro resp. -re. Among the two forms -de is more frequent than -do, but there is no semantic difference. Examples:
If the stem ends in a vowel -r> occurs, if the stem ends in a rasal -d> occurs. The final > is dropped before the feminine suffix ae.
(10) ini selag-do Dem door- Art 'this door' (11) aLo-re light-Art 'the light' (12) rasiN-de-ki flower-Art-Pl 'the flowers' (13) muo-m-re face 2s-Art 'your face' (14) konter-De-te bird-Art-Obj '(He shot) the bird.'
The vowel of the article -de /-re may be assimilated of the following plural marker: -re + ki -> -ri -ki boi + re + ki -> boi + re + ki 'the books' luko + ri + ki -> luko + ri + ki 'the people' Use
The articles are used when the speaker wants to refer to a person or object that was previously mentionned (identifying function).
Articles may be added to demonstratives and adjectives (only -do). (see adjective) (16) ini-re sedag. Dem-Art door 'This is a door.' (17) ni boi-re nua-ro. Dem book-Art new-Art 'This book is new .'1.3. Number
Number is marked by two suffixes: Singular: Q Dual: -kia Plural: ki Dual is marked in addition by among. (18) arokia banog-bo dio a-ku-buji-ri-kia. 3d two-Dir good Neg-Recip-like-pres-Du 'They don't like each other.' Number is not obligatorily marked. (19) uaLi-de-ki kutur-Di-ki-te teLa-Q tom-ki-ki. child-Art-Pl frog-Art-Pl-Obj stone throw-pres-Pl 'The children are throwing stones at the frogs.'
Juang has four cases - object case -te -oblique case -a -direction case -bo - ablative case -ta (sun)
The three case suffixes for object, directive and ablative case may be added to the oblique case marker (ex.42 (object), 49 (directive) and 52 (ablative)) without implying a difference in meaning.
The suffix -a deletes the vowel of an article, of a possessive suffix or (optionally) of the plural suffix: bilo +ro + a -> (ara) bilo-r-a 'In his field' selog + do + a ->selog-d-a 'of the dog' iti + pe + a -> (apea) iti-p-a 'In your hand' babung + ki + a -> babung-k-a 'of the snakes' Nouns ending in an vowel may insert an r before the suffix. maso + a -> maso-r-a 'of the month' Buli + a -> Buli-r-a 'of Bholi' a) Use as genitive case
The suffix -a is added to the possessor that is preposed to the possessed noun. The possessed noun may be marked by possessor suffix .
(20) selog-a bokob-D-o dog-Obl head-Art-3sposs 'thedog's head'
The English verb 'to have' is expressed by asi 'be' and the possessor in the oblique case. The possessor suffix on the possessed noun is optional.
(21) aN-a muinto kaka-N asi-ke. Is-Obl one brother-Is be-pres 'I have a brother.' (22) ape-a kiti -gota oRei asi-ki? 2p-Obl how many-Classcow be-Pres 'How many cows have you got? b) Use as locative case - The suffixe-a may indicate the place where an action is situated or the direction of an action. (23) ere sumusiN-d-a naNka basa asi-ke. that tree-Art-Loc Pron? net be-Pres 'They have their nests in that tree.' (24) selag-a ar-a buDa anguli-ro no-ce-ro. door-Loc3s-Obl old finger-3s catch-Pf-Past 'He caught his thumb in the door.' (25) aiN jiaro-a boi ungke. Is chair-Loc book put-Pres 'I put the book on the chair.' -The suffixe -a may indicate a time. (26) pancota belo-a poRia-te ebodom-om-an. five time-Loc field-Obj play-Dur-Past 'At 5 o'clock she was playing in the field.' c) Use as experiencer case (27) jonomo beLo-te ape-a biri opuaro dorokaro? birth time-Loc 2p-Obl what present want 'What do you want for your birthday?' Q: Differences between -a and -te as experiencer cases?
The suffix -te marks the object, a locative or an instrumental phrase. a) Use as object case As the object is not always marked by -te, I list the contexts where -te occurs: -with object pronouns (ex. personal and demonstrative pronoun), (28) Nobino aiN-te Dake-ke. "name" Is -Obj call-Pres 'Nobin is calling me.' (29) bolodo gadi tale~-ke-ki au banog-ta luko ere-te tele-ki-ki. bullock cart pull-Pres-Pl and two-Class man Dem-Obj push-Pres-Pl 'The bullocks are pulling the cart and two men are pushing it'. -with "indirect" objects (benefactive),
-with animate objects, (34) niN subudino isoro-te guari kikib-te doroka. 1p every day God-Obj prayer make-Obj should 'Weshould pray to God every day.' (35) bui-ro-te joi-o-jo konon-Do kus-i-an-a. mother-3s-Obj see-Past-Cj child-Art happiness-be-Past-? 'The child was happy to see its mother. ' Examples without -te: (36) aroki co-maso ian pulo-re-O bonai-ki-ki. (O: pulo-ta- O) 3p six-month for bridge-Art build-Pres-Pl 'They have been building the bridge for six months.' (37) lolob lage-re, panka-re-O melai. (O: ponkha-Ta-O kholidie) hot feel -pres fan -Art put on 'It is hot; let me put the fan on.' (38) kuu ole-ri-ki-O niN-a bilare ni-taitaN-a. (O: ambotoko) Imp mango-Art-Pl lp-Obl among? 1p -share-Fut 'Let's share the mangoes ourselves.' b) Use as locative The suffix may mark a local or a temporal phrase. (39) konter-ki akaso-te uDi-re-ki. (O: poksimane akasore uronti.) bird-Pl sky-Loc fly-Pres-Pl 'Birds fly in the sky.' Not 33 (40) aiN andaro-te leber-ke. Is night-Loc sleep-Pres 'In the night I sleep.' Not 8 The suffix -te in locative function may be added to the oblique case. (42) nende maso-r-a-te aN-aa boiose-N-de baro boroso m-i-na. next month-Art-Obl-Loc Is-Obl age-1s-Art 12 year 3Fut-be-Fut 'I shall be twelve next month.' c) Use as an instrumental (43) aro-te takesi-te ongor-te molonga. 3s-Obj still hand-Instr go-Obj must 'He has to go by taxi. (44) ape-te au iti?-te kote sapa kikib-te a-ulog-De jena. 2p-Obj still hand -Instr clothes clean make-Obj Neg-?-Pres Neg 'You don't have to wash your clothes by hand any more.' Note the cumulation of phrases marked by -te!1.4.3. Directive case
(45) niN-a nodi-bo n-on-De. 1p river-Dir 1p-go-Pres 'We are going to the river .' (46) aiN-a betong boDe-rag niN-a ga~o~ muji-bo dui-na. Is -Obl fear flood-water 1p-Obl village mid-Dir enter<3Fut>-Fut 'I fear the flood water will get into our village.' (47) ape nodi-bo po~re-te e-on-a? 2p river-Dir swim-Obj 2p-go-Fut 'Will you go swimming in the river? -an object, (48) arokia banog-bo dio a-ku-buji-ri-kia. 3d two-Dir good Neg -Recip-like-Pres-Du 'They don't like each other. (49) aiN ar-a-bo longseke. (O: mu ta aroku cahuchi.) 1s 3s-Obl-Dir see-Pf-Pres I'm looking at him'.' - an instrument. (50) ere luko-re kutia-bo susumusiN-De-te dej-ke. Dem person-Art axe-Instr tree-Art-Obj cut-Pres 'That man is cutting the tree with an axe.'
The ablative case has two forms, a long form -tasun and a short from -ta. The suffixes may be added either directly to the noun, or to the oblique marker -a.
(51) bojaro-ta market-Abl 'fromthe market' (52) olej-a-ta cow-Obl-Abl 'than the cow' The suffix -ta(-sun) indicates the starting point (local.personal, temporal, for a comparison). (53) subudinodikoro-te niN skulu-ta ni-dung-ke. every day afternoon-Loc 1p school-Abl 1p-return-Pres 'Every afternoon we come back from school.' (54) aiN sohoro-tasun langka rohe-jena. 1s town-Abl far live-Neg 'I don't live far from town.' (55) aiN kebe: le ar-aka-ta runo ki-kib-jena. 1s ever 3s-Obl-Ablloan Red-make-Neg 'I never borrow money from him.' (56) am-a oba-m sekalokia-ta kiti somoio jirai-re? 2s-Obl father -2s lunch- Abl how much time rest-Pres 'How lng does your father rest after lunch?' (57) niN ariga-ta sugei t~onO n-ur-ke. 1p curry-Abl muchrice 1p-eat-Pres 'We eat more rice than curry.' (58) niN-a olej ate-a (=ape-a?) olej-a-ta oLopo dudo diN-ke. 1p-Obl cow 2p-Obl cow-Obl-Abllittle milk give-Pres 'Our cow gives less milk than yours.' The suffix -ta alone has still more functions: -it may indicate a place, (59) Suruma jiaro alin-ta doko-se-ran. "name" chair on -Abl sit down-Pf-Past 'Suruma was sitting on a chair.' (60) rasota sag-iti bako?-ta dajing -pe. street left-hand side-Abl keep-2plmp 'Keep to the left.' -an instrument, (61) aro sag iti-ta leke-rim-a. 3s left hand- Abl write-can<3Fut>-Fut 'He can write with his left hand.' Other suffixes -ka The function of this suffix is still unclear. (62) aroki curo-ka dagan jo-re-ki. 3p thief-? like look-Pres-Pl 'They seem to be thieves.' It often occurs in a possessive construction. (63) ar-a-ka tikona 3s-Obl-? address 'his address' (64) konter-a-ka D~aNa-ro-ki asi-ke- ri? bird-Obl-? wing-3-Pl be-Pres-Quest 'Have the birds wings?'
Jang distinguishes its pronouns by two dimensions: person and number. Table 1s ajN 2s am 3s aro 1d niNba 2d apa 3p arokia 1p niN 2p ape 3p aroki
The pronouns may have case suffixes. The possessive pronouns are formed by the addition of the oblique case -a. Possessiv pronouns may be used predicatively.
(1) aN-a ungi-N-de kosokora, ele ape-a sopa-ro. 1s-Obl shirt-1s-Art dirty but 2p-Obl clean-Art 'My shirt is dirty, but yours is clean.'
The demonstrative pronouns may be combined with case markers. oblique directive ablative object auri 'that' aura 'there' aubo 'there' ere 'that' era 'there' etabo 'here' ini 'this' nante 'here' ni 'this' nita 'from here' enang 'here' uila 'that'
The demonstrative pronouns may be used both predicatively and attributively. (2) ape auri tangoro-re tek e-rim-a? 2p that stone-Art lift 2p-can-Fut 'Can you lift that stone?' (3) auri joroka. that window 'That is a window.' In predicative use they may be combined with an article. (4) ini -re sedag. this-Art door 'This is a door .
The demonstratives ere and ini may be combined with the classifier min to a complex form: eremindire resp. inimindire.
(5) auri kona-re song-song-jena. ere-min-di-re uruna. that cloth-Art Red-buy-Neg this-Class-Art-Art old 'Don't buy that cloth. It is old.' (6) ni oLe-ri-ki-te na-ma rub-ke-jena, ini-min-di-ri-ki dio bilim-jena. this mango-Art-Pl-Obj 1p-Neg-pick-Pres-Neg this-Class-Art-Art-Pl good ripe-Neg 'Let's not pick these mangoes; they aren't ripe yet.' 2.3. Indefinite pronouns kuTi 'a little' nokotej 'most' sanguli 'all' tangkulin 'all' sanguli and tangkulin may be combined with a case suffix (see examples below). Other indefinite pronouns are borrowed from Oriya. besi 'much, enough' jete .. ete 'as much ...as' ke: 'anyone' kebe:le 'never' kici 'anything' kounosi 'any' oLopo 'less' Examples in the appendix. The interogative pronouns may be used as indefinite pronouns as well.
2.5. Reflexive pronouns There are two sorts of reflexive pronouns. -One set has the same forms as the personal pronouns. In some forms the oblique case -a is added. (7) niN niN-a niN-a ne-ko-loN-an-a. 1p 1p-Obl 1p-Obl 1p-Rec-see-Past-? 'We looked at each other.' (8) niNb aniNba ba-ko-long-on-a. 1d 1d 1d-Rec-see-Past? 'We (two) looked at each other.' apa apa akolonga. ape ape ekolonga. - The other form, nije, is borrowed from Oriya (nijO). (9) aro-te nije ni bakso-re dilai-te molonga. 3s-Obj self Dem box-Art move-Obj must 'He must move this box by himself.' (10) aiN dorokono-a nijo-te long-se-ke. 1s mirror-Loc self-Obj see-Pf-Pres 'I am looking at myself in the mirror.'
Adjective are invariable, they show no agreement with the noun. In attributive use they are preposed.
(1) sundoro alo-re biri? red light-Art what 'Whatdoes the red light mean?'Adjectives in predicative use may carry the articles -do / -de, resp. -ro / -re after vowel. But the suffix is not obligatory (ex.3).
(2) lalaj lolob-do. fire hot-Art 'Fire is hot.' (3) auri bakasu-re lujir. that box-Art heavy 'That box is heavy.' (4) ere karoN-de setou?-do i-re. that fish-Art bad-Art be-Pres 'That fish smells bad.' Adjectives may function as verbs. (5) luko-re tera kana-na. (kana = blind) man-Art tomorrow blind<3Fut>-Fut 'The man will be blind.' Not 36 (6) ar-a bui-ro joro-re. aroki bui- ro-ki joro-re-ki. 3s-Obl mother-3s ill-Pres 3p mother-3-Pl ill-Pres-Pl 'His mother is ill. Their mothers are ill.' Not 21 Adjectives may function as complements of the verb i-'be' (ex.see above), lage- 'taste' and kur- 'grow'. (7) boron ole ajor lage-re. green mango sour taste-Pres 'Green mangoes taste sour.' (8) tokakon -de jaling kur-i-an-a. boy-Art tall grow? -be-Past-? 'The boy is growing tall.'
There are no separate form for comparative nor superlative. Thecomparee has the ablative case. (9) nudia sumusiN ole sumusin-ta jaling coconut tree mango tree-Abl high 'A coconut tree is taller than a mango tree. (10) Everest puruti-a somolia-ta kuba uli. "name" earth-Obl all?-Abl big mountain 'Everst is the highest mountain in the world.'
muinto 'one' ombato 'two' banog 'two' egota 'three' These numberals don't need a classifier, whereas the numbers higher than 4 need one. ganda-min 'four' (min is a Munda classifier, see below) Panco-goTa 'five' co:-goTa 'six'
The numbers higher than five are borrowed from Oriya, as the classifier goTa as well. goTa is also used after the interrogative and indefinite pronoun kiti.
(1) buli-ra kiti-goTa olei asi-ki-ki. "name"-Obl some-Class cow be-Pres-Pl 'Bholi has some cows.' The numerals are normally preposed, but muinto is found postposed as well. (2) iNa agila-ta juangDai luko-re muinto asike. house in front of-Abl woman person-Art one be-Pres 'There is a woman in front of the house.; The classifier min, used for the number '4' is found in other contexts: -it occurs as a postposed short form of the numeral muinto 'one' (03) R. oila sopota niN-a iNa-bo toro-min den-ce-ro. "name" last week 1p-Obl house-Dir time-Class come-pf-Past 'R. came to our house only once last week.' (04) aiN bisas kib-ke dino-min di-dino bolo-te gima m-i-na. Is hope do-Pres day-Class two-day time-Loc rain 3Fut-be-Fut 'I hope it will rain in a day or two.' (O: dine duidino bhitore) - it joins a count noun and mass noun (other analysis: it may stand for the Oriya suffix -e 'one'). (05) talai-min t~ol~o plate-Class rice 'a plate of rice' (06) balti-min dag bucket-Class water 'a bucket of water' -it occurs with demonstrative and interrogative pronouns. (07) ini cini, ele ere-min-di-re cini jena. this sugar but that-Class-Art?-Art sugar Neg This is sugar, but that is not sugar.' (08) ini biri-min-di? this what-Class-Art 'What's this?' (09) ape-a iti-p-a biri-min-di asi-ke? 2p-Obl hand-2p-Obl what-Class-Art be-Pres 'What is there in your hand?' -it occurs in idiomatic phrases as elo elomin 'sometimes'. (10) bulu-te aiN elo elomin t~ono ur-ke. evening-Loc 1s sometimes rice eat-Pres 'In the evening I sometimes eat rice.' 5.Postpositions agila 'infront of, before' aguru before' aling 'on' alung 'in' beLo* 'in' (temporal) variants: bolo bulung 'till' dire* 'by' ian 'for' (temporal) jakoi 'until' kora 'during' lagi* 'for' ocota 'behind' oculita 'behind' samu 'near' tulia 'under, ago' tulong* 'with, than' Some postpositions (marked by an asterisk*) occur with an oblique case.
(01) aiN uali-N-a bel-a aiNkiriketo eboN-om-an. 2s child-1s-Obl time-Obl 1s cricket play-Dur-Past 'I used to play cricket in my childhood.' (02) aro an-a lagikici ki-kib-jena. 3s 1s-Obl for anything Red-do-Neg 'He doesn't do anything for me.' (03) aiN mino ato-bo on-o, aN-a tulong ke: ongor-jena. 1s alone market-Dir go-Past 1s-Obl with anyone go-Neg 'I went to the market alone. No one went with me.' The postpositions may be combined with case suffixes. (04) iNa agila-ta juangDai luko-re muinto asike. house in front of-Abl woman person-Art one be-Pres 'There is a woman in front of the house.' (05) gator -alung-a babung asi-ke. hole-in-Obl snake be-Pres 'There is a snake in the hole.' They may be used as adverbs. (06) alum-bo on-a? in-Dir go-Fut 'May I come in?'
(27) agila Sukontolo-r-a cilor jimta asi-an. in the past "name" -Art-Obl long hair be-past 'Sakuntula used to have long hair.' Some postpositions are derived from verb form verb forms, ex. ian < i-an 'was' (be-Past) (08) niN egota maso ian aiLa jim-jim-jena. 1p three month for meat Red -eat-Neg 'We haven't eaten any meat for three months.' The postposition samu may have a possessor and a case suffix. (09) aiN ono maso-r-a ar-a samu-ro-bo citi din-ce-ro. 1s last month-? -Obl 3ss-Obl near-3s-Dir letter give -Pf-Paast 'I sent a letter to him last month.'
Temporal ekoloN 'now, just' tome 'now' acingka 'day before yesterday' aNDeka 'yesterday' misiN 'today' tera 'tomorrow' Problematic cases ere kontedikike joipe. 'Look at these birds.' ere sumusiNda nanka basa asike. that tree-Art-Lok? net be 'They have their nests in that tree.' ama atoromde begi, ele aNa mindiNde dio. 'Your answer is wrong, but mine is right.' ni seurakaru olopo nokotej muduro. 'Most of these apples are sweet. ' uaLi banog kijin kajangankia. 'The two boys kicked one another.' raNa 'the cold, to be cold' raNa dino 'cold weather, winter' raNa-ke '(it) is cold' da'g 'water' o-Dag-e 'to moisten' Derivation laljobgojkib 'fireman'? Conjunctions bela / bolote 'when' joti 'if' nalle 'otherwise' nole 'or' kalli 'only' ele 'but' -ri 'or'? ete 'so' -jo Particles au boRe 'very' erai 'maybe' kebolo 'only' matoro 'only' kolong 'yet' mute 'not at all, very' aro kolong iNa jojogote? 'Has she swept the room yet?' Nominalisations gogoi borojonto monisora asa asike. 'Man has hopes till death.' ape beLo dengorte aguru ebuluna? 'Do you get up before sunrise?' mino 'alone' aN mino atobo ono, aNa tulong ke: ongorjena. 'I went to the market alone. No one went with me.' ape minog minog ere sumusiNdete DeDe amarindejena. 'You can't cut that tree by yourself.'
1. Finite Forms Finite verb forms express the following categories: - subject person by prefixes, - object person by suffixes, - number by prefixes and suffixes as well, - tense by suffixes and by an infix - aspect by suffixes, - polarity, i.e. negation by prefixes, suffixes and/or reduplication.
As reduplication occurs in various paragraphs in my description, I will describe this morphological process in advance.
Reduplication is applied to monosyllables only. The reduplication template is CV (N) which is filled in from left to right by stem material. The nasal consonant is assimilated to the initial root consonant (m - > N in the example below).
C V (N) + C V C -> C V C V C C V (N ) + C V C -> C V N C V C k i b k i k i b 'do' j i m j i N j i m 'eat'
The verbs on- 'go' and Den - 'come' have an alternative form in -gor that is used in the same contextsas the reduplicated stem is used: oNgor, DeNgor.
Examples: bug bubug 'bark' jo jojoi / jojo 'see' DeDe 'cut' Den DeNgor / DenDen 'come' kib kikib 'do' Gai GaGaite 'cook' on ongor / onon 'go' jeg jejeg 'cry' rub rurub 'pick' jim jiNjim 'eat' soi sosoi 'learn' jiN jiNjiN
Examples for non-monosyllabic stems (all of which have no reduplicated stem) guiti guiti 'wash' leber leber 'sleep' The reduplicated stem is used in the following contexts: -imperfective past aspect: reduplicated stem + -oman -negation: reduplicated stem + jena (and other forms) -sentential complement (term?) : reduplicated stem + te
As there are three persons (1,2 and 3) and three numbers (singular, dual and plural) that are marketd, there are theoreically nine different verb forms. Actually the form for 1st sg and the form for 3rd sg are identical. However, according to Matson (1960:26) the of the verb root is lengthened in the 1st sg. I observed this too, but not in all forms. (TO VERIFY)
Ex. jim:-e 'eat!' vs. ji:m-e 'I will eat' Table of person and number affixes: 1 O ba- n(Vi)- 2 m(Vi)- a- Vi - 3 O -kia -ki Vi stands for a front high or mid-high vowel (i or e). - 1d auch nV - mOglich? wschl. nicht -2d auch e-mOglich? Remarks: The vowels of the prefixes for 1p, 2s and 2p are influenced by the root. a) Roots with initial vowel The vowels of the prefixes for 1p and 2s is omitted: mVi - + ur-ke -> m-ur-ke 'you are drinking' nVi - + ur-ke -> n-ur-ke 'we all are drinking' The vowels of the prefix may remain : me-ona 'you are going' The suffix for 2p keeps its V-shape, but assimilates to the vowel of the root (see below). b) Roots with mid-high vowels The vowels of the prefixs for 1p, 2s and 2p become e. mVi- +gog-De ->me-gog-De 'you are taking' nVi- +gog-De ->ne-gog-De 'we all are taking' Vi- +gog-De ->e-gog-De 'you all are taking' mVi- +jelai-ke ->me- jelai-ke 'you are fishinging' nVi- +jelai-ke ->ne- jelai-ke 'we all are fishinging' Vi- +jelai-ke ->e- jelai-ke 'you all are fishinging' But: ?? Vi- +on-ce-ro->i-on-ce-ro 'you (p) have gone' c) Roots with high or low vowels The vowels of the prefixs for 1p, 2s and 2p become i. mVi- +buli-ke ->mi- buli-ke 'you are walking' nVi- +buli-ke ->ni- buli-ke 'we all are walking' Vi- +jim-e ->me- jim-e 'you all are eating' mVi- +diN-ke ->mi- diN-ke 'you all are giving' nVi- +diN-ke ->ni- diN-ke 'we all are giving' But: Vi- +diN-ke ->e- diN-ke 'you all are giving' The vowel of the 2d-prefix is stable. a- +on-cero ->a-on-cero 'you (p) have gone' Example paradigm for Den- 'come' in the present tense Singular dual plural 1 ajN Den-Re niNba ba-Den-Re niN ne-Den-Re 2 am me-Den-Re apa a-Den-Re apa e-Den-Re 3. aro Den-Re arokia Den-Re-kia aroki Den-Re-ki
According to Pinnow and Matson there is a complete series of suffixes for object agreement. In my data I have found suffixes for 1s, 2s and 3p only.
Forms 1s -(ni)N 2s -m 3p -ki The object suffixes seem to be optional. Examples ajN -te boNo-bo ongor-te betoN-ki-N. 1s-Obj forest-to go-Purp fear-Pres-1s 'I fear going alone to the forest.' amte boNobo ongorte betoN-ko-m. 'You fear going alone to the forest'. niNte boNobo ongorte betoNke. 'We fear going alone to the forest'. aiN-te au kitigoTa komolo diN-i-N. 1s-Obj more some orange give-Fut-1s 'Give me some more oranges. ' biri ki-kib-te m-i-na aiN-te abjo-i-niN. what Red-do-Purp Fut-be-Fut 1s-Obj show-Imp-1s 'show me what to do.' oLei-ki-te jim-jim-te diNa-pe. -din-o-ki-te. cow-Pl-Obj Red-eat-Purp give-2p give-Past-Pl-Compl 'Please feed the cows. -I've already fed them. ' apete aDikomino dakikeki./ amte.....dakeke. 'Someone is calling you.' aiNte dag gilaso min oreniNdai. 'Please get me a glass of water.' kuTij domiN asi! 'Wait a minuite.' Example without an object suffix : am anj-te Juang gata m-ab-soj-e. 2s 1s-Obj Juang language 2s-Caus-learn-Fut 'You will teach me Juang.' Other examples in the appendix.
In Juang there are two classes of verbs with different sets of tense suffixes. According to Pinnow and Matson, there was originally a semantic distinction, namely between transitive and intransitive verbs. But there are many exceptions, so that it is a rather arbitrary decision which class a verb belongs to. As one set is clearly more frequent, than the other, I will call the former set I and set II.
Table of tense suffixes Set I Set II Present -ke -De Past -o -an Future -e -na (+ Infix -mV-, see below)Variants
The past suffix -an may be extended to -ana. The -an suffix may become -aN before the ending -kia: asiaNkia 'they (two) were' Before a plural suffix the present -ke or -De may assimilate to -ki. gondo+ke+ki -> gondo-ki-ki 'they smell lovely' ki+ke+ki -> ki-ki-ki 'they are jumping' lelei+De+ki -> lelei-Di-ki 'they get angry' other ex: leberkiki, dau~nikiki, asikiki m(besides asikeki) (exceptions?: pete-ke-ki 'they are striking', leke-ki 'they will write' [no change because -ke is part of the root]
In the future forms of the 3 person, there is in addition to the suffix -e resp. -na an infix -mV-, where as the vowel is a copy of the preceding root vowel. -mV- is inserted after the first root vowel. If the verb has an initial vowel, m- is prefixed without a vowel.
stem meaning singular dual plural Den 'come' aro Den-e arokia De n-e-kia aroki De n-e-ki o 'go' aro m-o-na arokia m-o-na-kia aroki m-o-na-ki uDi 'fly' aroki m-uDi-na-ki The roots undergo several morphonological processes according to the different suffixes . As the majority of the verbs belongs to class I, I only list the verbs of class II. For class I see the appendix. List of verbs of class II pure class II stem present future past perfect ari ariRe arina arian arisere 'come out' buDi buDire buDina buDian buDisena 'set (sun)' buLur buLu?De buLuna buLuran buLurceran 'get up' (r=R ?) doko dokore N 37 dokona dokoan dokosere 'sit', dokoke ? duir ? duiDe duina duiran duicere 'enter' gog go?gde gona gogan goksere 'take' i iRe ina ian iseke 'be' jirai jiraiRe jiraina jiraian jiraisero ? 'rest' kur ku?De kuna kuran kucera 'put on' laN laNDe laNna laNan laNsere 'belch' non nonDe nona nonan noncero 'get caught' olog olo?gDe oloNa olokseran '?' on onDe ona 'go' rim rimDe rima riman 'can' roe roeDe roena 'stay' soN soNDe 'buy' Not 21 absoNre ToNon ToNonDe ToNona ToNonan ToNoncere 'stand' uDi uDire uDina uDian(a) uDiseran 'fly'
According to previous work on Juang this class should contain intransitive verbs. Besides gog and kur this seems to be true.
present of class I, future and past of class II kui kuike kuina kuian kuisere 'receive' sub sub?ke suna suseran 'wear' past of class I, present and future of class II Den DenDe Dena Deno 'come' Some verbs may occur with suffixes of either class: kib kibke kibe kibo kipseke 'do' kibDe kima 'do' lage lageke lagao lageseke 'feel' ? lagare lagian sob sobke sobe sobo sobseke 'hold' soban See also Not 34: babtungseke and babtungsere with different meanings?
The present may have progressive, habitual, generic or immediate future meaning. niN nodi-bo n-on-De. 1p river-Dir 1p-go-Pres 'We are going to the river.' Not 3 1.4.1.2. Future ape judi saNe saNe ni-ta ama-duN-ke, aiN pulisi-te Dak-e. 2p if at once here-Abl Neg-go out=Pres 1s police-Obl call-Fut 'If you don't get out of here at once, I'll call the police.' Not 40 Permissive: Not 34 1.4.1.3. Past ajN bubababute sugei dino ian kongo / kongsero. (O: jane / janichi) 'I have known Mr. Pradhan for a long time.' aro kolong iNa jojogote? (O: se ebe ghoro olaisarila-ni?) 'Has she swept the room yet?'1.5 Aspect
There are two groups of aspect markers. The first group consists of two suffixes that are added directly to root. The second group consists of several suffixes that are added to the right edge of the verb form.
group I group II se Perfect (Pf) te Completive (Cpl) oman Imperfective Past (Impf) 1.5.1. -se Form This affix is added directly to the root and may be combined with all three tenses. without-se with-se Present loNke 'he sees' loNseke 'he is looking' Future loNe 'he will see' loNsere 'he'll looking' Past loNo 'he saw' loNsero 'he was looking' If the tense suffix has an initial vowel, -r- is inserted. loN + se +o -> loNseRo'he was looking' Adding -se to the root causes a devoicing of the final root consonant. jib + se + ke -> jipseke 'he has touched' jeg + se +ke -> jekseke 'he has cried' kij + se + ke -> kiceke 'he has danced' The plural suffix -ki may change the vowel of the suffix to i (as it is the case for the tense suffixes): joi+se+ke+ki -> joi-si-ki-ki 'They have seen.' This assimilation is optional: domsekiki 'they are waiting' dom+se+re+ki -> domseriki
The affix se expresses "perfect aspect". The action is completed and its result is still important in the yemporal frame that is set by the tense. Important examples:
Temporal frame is the present. rasota koDoa muinto ka~La luko doko-se-re. road side-Lok one blind man sit down-Pf-Pres 'A blind man is sitting at the side of the road.' seDag pako-a aDi ToNon-ce-re? gate near-Lok who stand up-Pf-Pres 'Who is standing at the gate?' But no perfect in: aNa kakaN ekolong baibo ono. 'My brother has just gone out.' Temporal frame is the past. aro aNDeka ToNon-ce-ran. 3s yesterday stand up-Pf-Past 'Yesterday he was standing.' suruma jiaro aliNta doko-se-ran. Suruma chair on sit down-Pf-Past 'Suruma was sitting on a chair.' The temporal frame is the future. ape iato-se-na beLote gaDi ecoLaoro. 2p be tired-Pf-Fut time car 2-drive-Imp 'When you are tired, don't drive.' niN niNa niNa nikoloNsena. 1p 1p 1p 1p-Recip-see-Pf-Fut 'We will see each other.' Experienced Perfect aiN kebe akurosoro cakejena. (aff. cakeseke) 'I have never tasted sugar-cane juice.' Without tense marker? aNa buiN araka olopo nokotej suna bengkea uncete. 'My mother has kept most of her gold in the bank.'
This suffix is suffixed to the reduplicated stem. If the stem ends with a consonant, it coalesces with the initial n-.
ki + oman -> kibkimoman 'was doing' jim + oman -> jiNjimoman 'was eating ' leber + oman -> lebenoman 'was sleeping' The suffix has the value of an imperfective past. pancota beLoa boliate (=poRiate?) ebodom-oman. five o'clock field-Lok play-Impf 'At 5 o'clock she was playing in the field.' aNDeka smesar ateta beLa am biri an? yesterday morning eight o'clock 2s what 2s-Red-do-Impf 'what were you doing at 8 o'clock yesterday morning?' bano juaNRai-kia dando-te koLeNom-oman-kia. two woman-Du road-Lok quarrel-Impf-Du 'Two women were quarrelling in the street.' gatang baro i-noman luko-re kala. road cross be-Impf man-Art deaf 'The man crossing the road is deaf.' aNDeka ain muinto juangDaite kuisero ju pancogoTa gata gatanoman. (O: jone mohilanku ... bhasa kohi paronti) 'Yesterday I met a woman who can speak five languages.'1.5.3. -te
The suffix -te is added to the final right edge of the verb form. It expresses that the action has been completed (-> Completive). It may occur with present and past tense.
belo budi-an-te. sun set-Past-Cpl 'The sun has set.' It may combined with the perfect aspect. aiN soi-ce-ke-te. 1s learn-Pf-Pres-Cpl 'I have learnt.' aiN kuTi jirai-se-re-te. 1s little rest-Pf-Pres-Cpl 'I have taken a little rest.' 1.5.4. other suffixes -nom (see also -noman) hai boi-nom-De 'The river is flowing.' ? niN niNa niNa dio nekoNdomde. 'We know each other very well.' aiN amte saikilore duijino pai~dinjenom. 'I can lend you my bicycle for two days.' buRare sobu golote joromnomre. 'The old man is always falling ill.' purutira unca uLi eberesete boroso sara boroko uri roisenomDe. 'Everest, the highest peak in the world, is covered with snow all year.' -ro? hai boi-ke-ro. (hai boi-ke.) 'The river has flown. (The river flows.)' aro muinto cakiri Dogorai nomanrai. (=dogora i-noman-rai ?) 'He may be looking for a job.'
The negation is expressed by several affixes depend upon tense which may occur alone or in combination with each other.
Prefixes: a-, am- Suffixes: -jena, -na(?), -ro (esp. used for negative imperative) The negated verb is either reduplicated or it carries a tense suffix.
The categories person, number, tense and aspect are not determined. The verb always has the same form: reduplicated stem + -jena. (TO VERIFY: Do all person occur in this construction?
aiN ononjena. 'I don't go! aiN kuikuijena. 'I haven't received.' aiN jimjimjena. 'I didn't eat.' aiN kikibjena. 'I never do.' aro dindinjena. 'He didn't take up again.' niNba dindinjena. 'We didn't give.' Plural subject may trigger an plural agreement. bikariki urujenaki. 'The beggars have not eaten.' The verbs on 'go' and Den 'come' from a special form in-gor which jena is added to. am aNorjena 'you don't /haven't go' aro oNorjena 'he...' aro Dengorjena 'he doesn't / hasn't /didn't come' niN Dengorjena 'we..' aroki Dengorjena 'they ....' As stems with more than one syllable don't reduplicate, these verbs are negated by simple addition of jena. aiN peraijena. I'haven't returned.' aiN cakejena. I have not tasted'. Reduplication missing: aiN onjena. 'I don't hear..' aro ijena. 'It has not stopped.' 1.6.2. Negation of full-inflected verbs (not yet analysed) Present tense forms The following table shows the various possibilities. -a ama- a - + -jena ama- + -jena a- ++ -na ma- + -na (=Fut?) (=Fut?) 1s adende amakoNke apoDekejena amaondejena aDendena amadiNkena 2s madende mapondejena madendena maondejena mauurkejena 3s abujike arindejena airena adende aurkejena adendena akibke asojkejena aroirena akibDe aondejena alagare aroirejena aki?ke basojkejena bamaurkejena 1d bamondejena amaurkejena 2d amadende bamaondejena 1p nabujike namarinde nasojkejena namaurkejena nakibkejena namarubkejena 2p iamAoNDe akuirejena amaurkejena amaina* asoikejena amaondejena amabujike amaduNke 3p adendeki ararikijena adendenaki akomoriki aondekijena apurkikina akubujirikia apurkikijena aurkikijena Problematic cases - Reduplication within a inflected form: aiN amaururkejena / ama koNkoNjena / aroki aDiDikirijena / aro ajegjegjena. - aiN rimdejena: why no a-prefix ? - am arimdejena: -ro = Neg ? - niN maondejena: why no n-prefix ? -aroki mudinaki. Is this really negative ? Positive from would be identical. Past Tense a- ama- a- + -na 1s amasian amadiNo amariman 2s marasian ma:diNo ma:gatau(jo) 3s arasian aiana ? aduiran aiana ? adiNo auro 1d barasian 2d emarasian amadiNo 1P na:diNo namasian 2P amasian amadiNo amariman 3p arasianki adiNoki apuroki audianki -aro madiNo: why no a-prefix ? Perfect a- ama- 1s ancero amakibsero adencero amagogseran 2s mancero madencero 3s agamsero 1d 2d amancero 1p nabicero namancero namakibsero amapodesero 2p 3p akibseranki alekeseroki 1. 6. 3. Negation of asi 'be' (22) aN-a muinto kaka-N asi-ke. 1s-Obl one brother- 1s be-Pres 'I have a brother.' aNa bokoraiN jote. 'I have no sistert.'
The imperative is formed by adding the future suffix. The suffixes -pa resp. -pe are added for dual and plural imperatives.
doko-na 'sit down! (you alone)' Dak-e' call! (you alone)' doko-na-pa 'sit down! (you two)' doko-na-pe 'sit down! (you all)' (-na is the futur suffix of class II, -e of class I.) eboDom-a-pe 'play' The futur suffix may be omitted. eremindire aiNte abjo-e! 'show it to me! (you alone)' eremindire aiNte abjo-pa! 'show it to me! (you two)' eremindire aiNte abjo-pe! 'show it to me! (you all)' The aspect suffix-se may be added: aiN periba jakoj Dom-se-re. 1s return-Inf(Or) until wait-Pf-Fut 'Wait until I come back.' oreniNdai 'bring me' orenpa dito The prefix kuu -is used for first person imperatives. kuu-buli-n-o-na. Imp 1ns-walk-1p-go-Fut 'Let's go walking.' debe kuu sumusiN tulite ba-doko-na. then 1ns tree under 1d-sit down-Fut 'Then let's sit under the tree.' kuu oLeriki niNa bilare nitaitaNa. 'Let's share the mangoes among ourselves.' The future may be used as imperative as well. eDake! 'call (you all)!' Other suffixes: -du: IT is added to the future suffix and is used in 2nd person imperatives. me-toNon-an-do. Doko-na-du. 2s-atand-Past-Neglmp sit down-Fut-Imp2 ‘Don’t stand! Sit down! leber agila alo-re-ki obgoj-e-Du. sleep before light-art-Pl put out-Fut-Imp2 ‘Put out the lights before you go to bed.’ -me: aNa dio ireme. ‘Let me do well!’ 1.7.2. Negative imperative There are two negative morphemes that are used to from the negated imperative: --ro, which is added to the past form of the verb, and -jena, which is added to reduplicated stem or to the stem + -ke (present). a) -roThe negation is expressed by adding the suffix –ro (-do) to the past form of the verb. The variant –do is used after the class II past suffix –an.
2s mi-jiN-o-ro ‘don’t ask’ (you alone) me-toNon-an-do ‘don’t stand’ (you alone) 2d a- jiN-o-ro. ‘don’t ask’ (you two) 2p i- jiN-o-ro. ‘don’t ask’ (you all) (-o is the past suffix of class I, -an of class II.) Examples Kanto me-Dege-o-ro. Wall 2s-jump-Past-Neglmp ‘Please jump over the wall. aNa pai~ me-lelej-an-do. 1s-Obl for 2s-get angry-Past-Neglmp ‘Don’t get angry with me!
mino monoro. ‘Don’t go alone.’ Further examples 3rd person imperative? gatabarata iando, aNa gata Nre oNpe. ‘Please don’t talk. Listen to me.’ b) jena From: reduplicated stem (+present suffix) + jena There is only one form, perhaps it is used for all three 2nd persons. ku-kur-jena. Red-wear-Neg ‘Don’t wear.’ auri konare soN-soN-jena. eremindire uruna. That cloth-Art Red-buy-Neg it old ‘Don’t buy that cloth. It is old.’ The present suffix ke may be inserted between the stem and the negative. aiN-te a:m-a ailaN abje-ke-jena! 1sObj 2s-Obl tongue show-Pres-Neg ‘Don’t show me your tongue.’ 1.8.Auxiliaries and modal verbs 1.8.1. Overview aire jena ? prohibition dorokaro ? obligation (‘should’) i- ‘be’ obligation, passive (see below) mana ? prohibition moloNa ? obligation on- ‘go’ ‘want’, immediate future rim- ‘can’ ability
All auxiliaries take a reduplicated stem + te (purp) as complements, except rim- that takes a (reduplicated) stem only or stem + e. On-and rim- function as full-inflected verbs, the other auxiliaries are invariable.
rasata alinta boLo keLete aire jena. ‘You mustn’t play football in the street. aRobo ualite ape saijo kikibte dorokaro. ‘You should help the orphan.’ ualikite lalaj samorobo ongorte mana. ‘Children mustn’t go near the fire.’ aiNte / apete / arote takesite oNorte moloNa. ‘I /you (p) he have / has to go by taxi.’ ekoloN niN kamo nerima kikib? ‘We can work now.’ am indi poRe merima? ‘Can you read Hindi?’ aiN juaN gata sosoite mona. ‘I want to learn Juang’. ape nodibo p~orete eona? ‘Will you go swimming in the river?’ 1.8.2. ‘be’ The main verb i- means ‘be’. am dio miante. 2s good 2s-be-Past-Cpl ‘You have well done.’ ere ire bali. ‘It is stand.’ This verb also conveys the meaning ‘must, have to’. amte / aiNte / ekoloN ononte mina. ‘You /I / we must go now.’ The passiv is formed by this auxiliary. The main verb is in its reduplicated form. niNa iNa subudino nindo kibkib ire. ‘This is done in our home every day.’ gata jelaute. nita biri kikiib mina? ‘The speeches are over. What is going to be done next?’ niNa iNaninDe roNgo kikib mina. ‘Our house is going to be painted.’ boLodoa dir caso kikib ire. ‘Fields are ploughed by bullocks.’ 1.9.Other suffixes 1,9.1. Question-marker –ri The suffix –ri is used to form a yes/no-question. aro ape-a olig-te curom-se-re bulli ape e-koN-se-ke-ri? 3s 2p-Obl cow-Obj stealPf-Pres Comp 2p 2p-know-Pf-Pres-Quest ‘Are you sure he has stolen your cow?’ konter-a-ka D~aNa-ro-ki asi-ke-ri? bird-Obl-Poss wing-3poss-Plbe-Pres-Quest ‘Have the birds wings?’ -a? bileiRe sumusiN alngo dajan-a. ‘The cat climbed up the tree.’ kirikete keLo ekolong aromo iana. ‘The cricket match has just started.’ 2. Nonfinite forms There are three nonfinite forms: a) reduplicated stem b) reduplicated stem + case suffix (?) 2.1. Reduplicated stem The reduplicated stem has three functions: - It may function as a simultaneous converb. In this case it is repeated. - It may occur as a complement of verbs like rim- ‘can’ and on- ‘go’. (on- may have complements with –te as well, see below.) - It is used in one type of negative construction (see negation). aro je-jeg jejeg iNa-bo duN-o. 3s Red-cry Rep. house-Dir return? –Past ‘He came back home crying.’ manuso konon-re da~unida~uniara bui-r-a samuro-bo den-o. man child-Art run run 3s-Obl mother-3s Poss-Obl near-Dir come-Past ‘The child came running to his mother.’ ualiki karoN so-sob on-De-ki. child-Pl fish Red-catch go-Pres-Pl ‘The children have gone fishing.’ (Perfect?) ekoloN niN kamone-rim-a ki-kib. now 1p work lp-can-Pl Red-do ‘We can work now.’ Phrasal verbs aroki pulore bonaiutaisikite. (O: tiari korisarichonti.) ‘They have finished the bridge.’ 2.2 Reduplicated stem + case suffix (TO VERIFY) - te object case suffix - ta ablative(?) case suffix - sun concomitant case
The reduplicated stem has the object case suffix –te if it functions as a complement of another verb (exceptions: rim- ‘can’ an on- ‘go’; see above).
aro oLe ru-rubte sumusiN Daj-an. 3s mango pick-? Tree climb-Past ‘He climbed the tree to pick mangoes.’ biri golaite m-i-na aiN-te gatai-niN. what cook? 3Fut-be-Fut 1s-Obj tell-1s ‘Tell me what to cook.’ aiN JuaN gata so-soi-te mona. 1s Juang language Red-learn-? Want ‘I want to learn Juang’. ape nodi-bo po~re-te e-o-na? 2p river-Dir swim-? 2p-go-Fut ‘Will you go swimming in the river?’ The form in-te may carry person prefixes. (TO VERIFY) aNa ~lri dio a-laga-re, aiN-te guti oso ni-jim-te moloNa. 1s-Obl? Well Neg-feel-Pres 1s-Obl some medicine 1s-eat-? Must ‘I feel unwell. I must take some medicine.’ The whole verb form may be iterated. pulisete jo-jo-te jojote curo da~uni-sun duN-o. police-Obj Red-see-? Rep thief run-? go out-Past As soon as the thief saw the policeman, he ran away.’ (what is –sun in the above example?) -ta ur-ur-ta agila suba-beLe muo-m-re iti-m-re, mi-guiti-na dorokaro. Red-eat-? before all-time face-2s-Arthand-2s-Art 2s-wash-Fut should ‘You shold always wash your hands and face before you start eating.’ selog bug-ta bugta aiN-a samu-N-bo gotoke deno. dog bark-? Rep 1s-Obl near-1s-Dir? Come-Pres ‘The dog ran barking to me.’ -sun (52) aro uDi-sun on-o-jo lalaj-a rabo-Dom –an (-o?). 3s fly-? Go- fire burn-1pf-Pt ‘It flew and went and burnt.’ (??) Txt 2.5 (22) aro uluNDi-sun on-o-j Dak-a sata-o-ng. 3s roll on the ground go-Pt-Sub water-Obl soak-Pt-? ‘Rolling on the ground, it soaked full of water.’ Txt 2.7 2.3. other suffixes -u? t~olo uru n-o-na-ku nin-te tilai-ke. rice eat-? 1p-go-Fut-? 1p-Obj be hungry-Pres ‘We’ll go to eat rice because we are hungry.’ -a? aiN konosi lek-a-re adeso kui-kui-jena. 1s any write-?-? order Red-receive-Neg ‘I haven’t received any written orders.’ aNa lek-a-jelau-o kolomo un-ke. 1s-Obl write-? –finish –Past pen put-Pres ‘Having written I’m putting the pen away.’ -da aiN baido bu-bug-Da oN-se-ke. 1s drums Red-beat-? Hear-Pf-Pres ‘I can hear drums beating.’ -ja gaDi pi-pi-ja upore. Train Red-leave-? about ‘The train is about to leave.’ Participle? Dende: teratasun ‘from tomorrow’ 3. Derivation 3.1. Overview ab-causative not producative ku-reciprocal producative
The prefix ku- is added directly to the root. Person and negative prefixes precede it. ku- has the allomorph ko-before roots with mid-high vowels (e,o).
1d ba-ko-loN-o-na 1d-Rec-see-Past-? ‘we (two) looked at each other’ 1p nekoloNana ‘we (all) looked at each other’ 2d akoloNa ‘you (two) looked at each other’ 2p ekoloNa ‘you (all) looked at each other’ (Why not akoloNo?) arokia bano?bo dio a-ku-buji-ri-kia. 3d two-Dir well Neg-Rec-love-Pres-Du ‘They don’t like each other.’ di-bai arakara-kia dio ku-buji-ri-kia. two –brothers each other-Du well Rec-love- Pres-Du ‘We stop talking (to each other).’ niN niNa niNa ne-ko-loN-an-a. 1p 1p 1p 1p-Res-see-Past-? ‘We looked at each other.’ 3.3.ab- causative According to Matson the prefix ab- has several allomorphs. In my data there are two,ab- and ob-. (rule?) Causative goj- ‘die’ ob-goj- ‘kill’ jo- ‘see’ ab-jo- ‘show’ soj- ‘learn’ ab-soj- ‘teach’ Syntax Complex sentences ere (21) bokoLab-Do egor alaTe-an ere buRi buRa kong-o-ki-a. ‘The old couple learnt that the grandson had become a stone.’ Txt 9.21 ete aro on-o ete aiN ga:m. ‘I say that he went.’ -jo ni lukore denojo boraiseke. aiN boi melaujo pore. ‘Having opened the book, I’m reading.’ aiN kolomo sob-o-jo lek-e. 1s pen hold-Pt-Sub write-Fut ‘I’ll write with the pen.’ aiN kolomo sob-o-jo lek-e. 1s pen hold-pt-Sub write-Fut ‘I’ ll write with the pen.’ aiN boi ujiojo leke. ‘Having opened the book I will write.’ aroki boi uji-o-ki-jo le4. Loan wordsk-e-ki. 3P book open-Pt-Pl-Sub write<3Fut>-Fut-Pl ‘They will write when they have opened the book.’ am boi mujiojo meleke. kongeRDiki muta juaNDa-re-te joi-o-ki-jo larauki. ‘The children laughed at the fat woman.’ buDare baDi sobanjo daiNke. ‘The old man is walking with a stick.’ am baDi mesobanjo meDaiNke. Nonfinite form?: aitojo jibo jonturiki sumusin tulia leberkiki. ‘The tired animals are sleeping under the tree.’ -ku otolobo nonaku ninte tilaike. ‘We’ll go to the hotel because we are hungry.’ t~olo uru nonaku ninte tilaike. ‘We’ll go to eat rice because we are hungry.’ In addition Pinnow lists io, biri, ge, kuri, kiri as markers attached to a finite verb form. Relative clause ANDeka ain muinto juangDai-te kui-ser-o ju panco-goTa gata gata-nom-an. yesterday 1s one womanObj meet-Pf-Pt RelP five-Class language speak-lpf-Pt ‘Yesterday I met a woman who can speak five languages.’ am j~e ~u jiero-a me-doko-se-re ere-mindiri oLe-re. ‘The chair you are sitting on is shaking.’ Dative Subject aiNte rasiN gonoke. ‘I can smell the flowers.’ aiNte emal~o isere. ‘I have got a cold.’ aiNte ekoloN ononte mina. ‘I must go now.’ ualikite lalaj samorobo ongorte mana. ‘Children mustn’t go near the fire.’ aiNte omorDo makuraN. ‘I fell asleep.’ amte aitojo. amt aitojena. ‘You were tired. You weren’t tired.’ ualite kiti iana? ‘How old is the baby?’
Borrowing has always been a major factor to affect the syllable structure of this language. As we have mentioned earlier, since initial clusters are not commonly allowed in the language, sometimes the speaker breaks the borrowed words like pruti into purti ‘??’ or prubO into purubO ‘east’. Further evidence in support of this claim is noticed in words like skul -> iskuul.
Another borrowed word, which has been nativised and changed in Juang, is sOngkLe ‘welcome’. The original Oriya for this is sOngkhuLa ‘welcome’. As we have mentioned earlier, aspirated sounds are not there in Juang. So what might have happened was, in the process of borrowing, Juang has deaspirated kh sound into k and because of some phonological conditioning vowel deletion has taken place. Thus khuLa -> kle. As shown in case rampne, Juang in any case shows a tendency to change a to e. Thus the syllable structure of the word sOngkle is CVC.CCV. This shows clustering of the type velar + liquid is also allowed as an onset cluster in this language in the disyllabic words.
Simplification is a kind of desyllabification also, because in simplification (is it really more simpler?) a vowel could be dropped, as in cakOrO / cakra ‘??.
5. ConclusionIn brief, Juang has monosyllabic, disyllabic and trisyllabic words. They also have some rare quadrisyllabic words. Clusters are commonly not allowed in the initial positions (though exceptions as noted are found) for which i is added in the loan skul to break the onset cluster. But onset clusters in plurisyllabic words are more often found than coda clusters. Coda clusters was found in the word ramp.ne, which is an Oriya loan.
O Oiak nest Oij yes Og to carry a baby Ong to hear,to listen OngsO duck Onggi shirt OcOta after OcOtObujiO repent Ocina unknown OcOre back OjOn oil OjOngarke oilman OjOmkibke to digest OjaG potato OjarO thousand OjarOmuin one thousand Oji to get lost Ojae lose aTar tail OnOg to bend OnOsOm jack fruit OdOrOm anti religion OdOrmian apostate Oda wet, ginger On to go Onman guess OnOsOre aim at ObO ceremony ObgOj to kill ObOLe climb down Oba father OmOrak tear OmOr eye OmOrputla eye-ball OmOrjObra mucous of the eye OmbaTO two Omisa new moon Oraj to plant, transplant Ore to fill as water Oren to bring OLOg alight as bird OLOng rabbit OLOndu soots OLOmiin pair OLak cake OLej cow OLen hail OLOgti palm OlOng (thatch) straw Olak leaf OlanggOn leaf plate Ole mango OsO medicine OstO peepal OsOmOt refuse OsarO breadth OsaLO month of June-July a aOng avoid aOji to lean aitOg to scratch ailang tongue au and, also auci to reach auta beyond auri younder aeLa flesh, meat akOb ash aka rope, chain akananDerungkub unpolished rice aku sugarcane agleta in front of agatO hit agila before agilapucila front & back angatOm toywn ajOr sour ajguLiang cling to ajOtO jail aja grand father aja to chew aji elder sister ajikar wife's elder sister ajira attendance anj I anja mine aTO market aTaaTa sticky aTia mat aTika earthenpot aTasOr grinder aDcia chopper aDOlak dry leaf aDOsOr bone aDi who aDia whose aDiki who(pl) aDite whome (sg) aNDkOLOb calf of leg aNTu knee aNTue kneel aNu monkey aNDramOD white of eye aNDara white aNDij put on, wear aNDeka yesterday atO key atOkODi handcuff atna soul ati elephant atir father's elder brother atirae aunty atuLi hammer adOrO fondle adOrOjena disregard andOrO dark appeTe cause to strike apa you two ape you all abgOg case to sent abTung case to break (as stick) abDim case to tinch abtOng threaten abri cause to go out (of a house) absOng to sell abug to play (as drum) am you (sg) amte to you amnaje cause to rinse amdani harvest arO he, she arOki they all arOkia they to ara his, her aram sun in law ari to go out (of a house) arikini candle ariga curry arucire be tastefull are be defeated aLO bamboo aLabOg orphan alaraetOm saliva alingga above alung inside asOng bitter asabakima to hope asi to be asimOD eye lid
i i be ig to open igODO commit suicide ica hip ijing leg injam blood inja house iDip to forget iNi body iNibO wife's brother itOrO this yaer itangg cowdung iti hand, arm itib belley indOr god ini it ibalOng bare irira ear ring iskulu school insa violence
u uag bathe uaLi child uaLikOnOn male child uaLikOnjcelan female child uiang float uku hearth ukuLOm mango nut ukusOng kitchen ugur cause to fall down uguLa loose uLi small hill uncae to raise uci to wipe ujOLOpOkO light half of the month uja worship uTi musk-melon uTuLi bondle uDi to fly uDuir cause to go in uDubOk Itairy caterpillar uNTkilar grass hopper uNDi to eares drop uNDin bull utan winnowing fan (bamboo) utare to copy utij to cary on head udO otter udarO to borrow un to keep, to put unkuLO start unida awake utDir snore upasO fast uptir to jump ur to drink, to eat (rice) uruNa old uruNakOte old cloth uLusO bed bug uLusa lazy ulO arum ulir rope hanger ulu fool uluNDi to roll on the ground usuNij naval usubida difficulty usumae to warm usurO giant usurOrae giantess usasO light usajana collapse
e ekca near ekOLOng now ekan paddyfield ekuDia together ekecare to be aside egOTa three eger gravel / stone ejangg seed ejelag thirst eTe to stir eNTej little etakuri henceforth etasun after that ete so ene rub, press endarO night ebODOm to play emOngg forehead emaNO cold ere that erag to bloom erete for that erebeLa in this time esOr mortar ese louse kO to shave kOa mist kOiOm to cough kOiLOng God kOilOngDae goddess kOuNi elbow kOkOm arrow point kOng to know kOngkO neck kOngkOLangkia squint-eye kOngger boy kOjOng blacksmith kOnja wrist kOnci key kOnciO tortoise kOnje to arrange kOncelan girl kOncelanDae elder brother's daughter kOTlur earwax kOTuri bill hook kOTasO wild cat kOte cloth kOdiLO plantain kOn seaffold kOnOe rajor kOnOn son kOnecangg currystone kOnter bird kOb to peck kObOrO message kObsOr to dry kOmOTra married man kOmDOr honey kOmDOrata bee kOmDOrbui bee-hive kOmLO blanket kOmLa orange kOmOsa Influenza kOme decrease kOra sunlight kOLOtO horsegram kOsTO difficult kOsOr to dry up kOsOr dry fruit kOsi slide ka elder brother kaase always kai tree art kakO armpit kakag bow kanggar hell kanggaLO beggar kajDOng mud kajirimamOD centipede kaTO comb
kaTi firewood kaDia cigar kaDu bracelet kaNa hole kaNamOr blind person kaNDae old woman kaNDi-itib uterus kaNDiceke pregnancy kandinOj conception katir mosquito kantO wall kanan ripe mango presemed kaniaN marriage kaniaNrae bride kapuni loin cloth kapuri skull kabur wild dove kam to pluck (fruit) kamNa to dig a hole kamOpaiTi work etc kamaij ant kamulOg man karOng fish kara summer karabeLO noon kaLatutukar scorpion kaLar crab kaLasamOnggO lizard kaLiamOD pupil of the eye kaLung urinate kaLungtOr urine kalOb bark (of tree) kasu ache (as headache) ObhinOyO kOriba to act (drama) kiangter (sparrows) kikij to dance kici some kijing step on kijiri datepalm kiNjcOng cage kiti howmuch kitibeLa when kin to sent kinOb back kinmingta behind kinaTi courtyard kindu kendu fruit kib to do kimiNDae grandson’s wife kir kick kire scream kiLOg tiger kiLOgrae tigress kua palmfull kuaLesOng smoke kui to get kuili cuckoo kukuDae dove kungkar father in law kungkulang butterfly kuNj to flod (cloth) kujnjimDak star kuTij little kuTumO wife kuTumaLi family kuDimuiN twenty kudu father’ elder brother kuNO corner kunai guest kuNTO stump / pillar kuNTi necklace kutOm chin kudaLi native spade kuni murder, murderer kunta to groan kupuri pond kuba fatty big, thick kuba-senggOn thick wood kumbirO crocodile kumurunggi carambola kurO hoof kuri to scrape kuLua jealous kuLi elder’s brother wife kuli open kulab bael fruit kulari edible green ke none kengra cucumber kenj to chop kenci to spear keDab to bite kenDamONO sweet potato kerab to cry(of animal) to chirp keLO game keLOna toy keLag knee-bone keLenj wound keLenj mODO eye disease kesOr egg-yolk g gOcOmOrak glow-worm gOj to die gOji to roar gOTOke to run gOTang path gOTe happen gODai hinge g
gONe count gOnTamiin early gOnTra snoring gOnTi knot, to tie knot gOnDej squirrel gOdO donkey gOda stalk gOdamO guava gOn to weave gOndO odour, smell,flavour gOndONO-Dak dirty water gonda smelling gOpe to gossip gOmOjta dead gOmbari gambari tree gOrObkimDe to boast gOrOLO venom gOrej chameleon gOkgOLi thunder gOLa to cook gOLa horse gOLarae mare gOsOre to crawl (as a baby) gOse to rub gaaNO singer gauNtia village god gaj to fry ganjia purse gaDra ram gaNDami four gaNDua basket gaNTe to stir gatOrO hole gata language, story gatae to speak gadisere to heap gar to beg, to reap gasO grass gasOgarkr to mow the grass gian shame gianDe shameful giDing sweat gitO song gitO to sing gima rain, cloud gimadinO rainy season gimasOngseke cloudy gir to roast giri brain giridO vulture girub to vomit guaNg crow guaguNDa invitation guarO cowshed guiti to wash (hands) guguj to clran (utencils) guca bush guca to remove guci to move guTia axe guTi cliff guTikire thunder guTugaT treamble guNa nose ring guNir fly guNuguNae to hum guNTa wrap up guNTi-iti elbow guNDra to carry on back gumpa cave gur fall down gurita married woman geregeNDa to tickle gelO to joke, to play gelObOguli joke
c cOOli splashout coda without cOndi tangle cOmOkere startle ca tea cai shadow cakrO servant cake to taste (eat a sample) canggu Drum (a kind of percussion instrument played by the Juangs) caDri divorcee caNi to strain cata umbrella capo button camOnDa pillar carO kind of berry caripakO around calO leather, skin calia to skin ciOg drop by drop citOr image cinO sign cini recognize cini sugar cipi to press cipiLi squeeze out cuki bead cukia watchman cucur to kiss cunci needle cuTia limp cuTa lame person curO thief curi knife cendra rag j jO to see jOgOLa argument jOge to watch, guard jOjOg to sweep jONDag earthworm jOte don’t have / no jObra moss jOrOka window jOrONa spring jOre leak jOLe fall off (leaf) jaONa twin jaci offer jan lick jabOka one type of fruit jaling high, tall jalinga above jaling-sumusing tall tree jalua loer jizsuNi married woman jing to ask (question) jingLae porcupine jiNTi sprinkle jintu animal jib to touch jim to eat jilar long jilOr-juNTa long hair jilung deep juangDae juang woman juaNi maize jukmuki sparkle stone juDak thron junta hair judo fight juni sponge-gourd juprO drizzle (rain) jurun thin juri long for juli hang up, swing jeele jail jeg to cry jejeg weeping jeDa papeya jete to win jenOk broom jena no jeLa finish (work)
T TOkOb hard TOkOlOng round TOke cheat TOnggO hill TOnggObua hill field TOngkae load TangkuNing entire TaNe drag Tare beckon Talang bald person Tiki right, correct Tipa drip (as water) Tuki girl Tung break (as a stick) TuNTa leprosy Tupa drop TurungkbOtOD bristle TuLia collect Teke lift up Tengga staff D DOkO to sit on the ground DOgOra find DOrua coward DOLej short, low DaaNi witch Daing to walk Dak water DakkOilOng water god Dak-kibke to make water Dak-tOONO rice water Dakua postman Dake call DangkOra selfish Daj climb Dan cover DaLO-Olak branch & leaf DiO right, good :right side DiOti right arm DiOrO virtue DiO-lukO good person Digar to pull from water Dingki rice husker Dinj to give Din to drive out Dibiri left side Dim to pinch Duir to enter Dukur ground frog Dung go away Dungkari chilli DuNDi nose ring DuNDuLi-ijing heel Dumburi fig tree DuLuDub lean & thin Dusen mole Dega jump Degan like Dej cut down Den to come DabOng rainbow Dera prop DeLeng bell t tO whistle tOONrO elephant’s trunk tOke tired tOTa joke, orchard tONO cooked rice tOtoLa stammerer tOmO to throw tOmOr mouth tOr fasten, bind tOrOka cautious tOri shake ta from tagaLa healthy tang measure taDu palate tamui sneeze tata heat tarOm shoulder taLa seed bed tasa farmer tasi rich tiurae mother in law tij to carry (on head) tir stumble tin burry (athing) tintar to curry (on shoulder) tintiNi tamarind tilaj hunger tui float tunga kind of edible root tupOg owl tubDir white ant turaLi sword tusO chaff te to teO worm tej break (as a rope) tenterak spider temOng wrinkle tera tomorrow teren kendu frut d dOia kindness dOuLa rope dOkiNO south dOnO wealth dObODe run dOba washerman dOmOkae threaten dOrOm religion dOrOmbui god mother dOler tremble daO sickle dauNNi run dadi father’s younger brother dantu toothy darO sharp (edged) daria sharpness diOLO temple duara by dui curd dukO sorrow ducari adulterer dudO milk duni fire inside the guest-house dupO incense dupOkanaun incense stand durObOLO weak duLi dust dulia dusty dusO guilt dusi guilty
n nOa new nOi river nOuka boat nOkO finger nail nONca small hut in a field nONOjintu wild animal na grand mother naO name naele or nagOm chief naTO dance naTua actor ni this nicOpO silence nidusi innocent niNj we (pl) niNjba we two nisasO breath nukuti finger nail nuNuiNj like nunu breast
p pOOra watch pOONre swim pOkia rain hat (made of leaf) pOcimO pest pOmpLO loose pOrOki examine pOrca broad pOre after pOre fill pOLO fruit pOLsa palas tree pOLe read pOLae to teach paaDO hill pakea cross pag separate pagO turban page to break (as a pot) paNcOgOTa five paNce conspire paNjra rib paTi mouth, sound paNia egg-white paNiDung water snake pardi hunting paLe bring up pasO trap pij abandon piNDa veranda puci wipe off pucuka boil (on skin) puTi boil putuLa toy putla idol puNTa intestines punui fullmoon purti world pulO bridge pulsi police puli swell pusiaN-kOnOn adopted son pusu animal peTe strike unite (a knot) per to blow pere return
b bO to blow (as wind) bO to, by means of bOONrO whirl pool bOi book bOinga edible root bOu son’s wife bOerO plum book younger brother bOkOb head bOkOrae younger sister bOkOLab grandson bOkOsen grand daughter bOka fool bOge command bOngga change bOj wash bONce to live bODe to grow bONOja nephew bONDari barber bONDe cheat bOdOLa change bOna make bOndukO gun bOp bark bOr smear bOrO bride groom bOrOn raw fruit, alive bOrOnlak green bOrsO year bOsO fat ba father bai brother baia mad baidO drum baidObuke drummer bau brother in law bauNTi armlet baea outside baksO box bakaLi kitchen garden bagi bad, evil, wrong bagina to heat in the fire bangaLia necked person banguria short person bace choose(out of several) baNa forget baNiji niece bata split bamboo badi dispute banOng both bana build banae bear babni (she) short stature babitungge to spit babung snake babungbala snake charmer babun short stature (he) babe think bamONO bramhin bar knock barta message baLOe pumpkin baLi feces baLising fence basa place basan edible root bituNDak spit bite why bidae god bidiNi chisel bir to sow biri what biLi tighten biLiki eyebrow biLim anthill bilim ripe fruit, white complexion bilim ripen bilimDae white complexes girl bisasi faithful bisi many bisuasO faith bua paddy bui mother buiangguLi thumb buita chief buitaNi chief’s wife buintar brother-in-law buisakO month of baisakh buutu vote buka fool buku chest bug to play buja baked rice buji feast, understand buDa oldman buDi oldwoman buNi sister buTO ghost butae pig bubukaD foam bubLur cause to get up bure to come up (as milk) buLua stout buLur get up bulu thigh bulung salt bulungsaro salty bejeDa plane bejerang tobacco beTi meet betong fear betOnggan fearful ben to spread set (a trap) bergeNeitib stomach beLO sun beLO-OnDe sunset beLODenDe sunrise m mOing day after tomorrow mOjang dormitory mONcO earth mODia dirty mONDOg guest house mOtej nose mOtejkaNa nosestrill mOdurO sweet mObler lightning mOreng two days after tomorrow mOLe twist maajOnO merchant makur to doze magOnta beggar maTa fat maDa corpse maduLi bat mane accept, obey manta next year mami mother-in-law mamunu kindness marag (he) peacock maragrae peahen masTOrO teacher micO false, lie miTai sweets minOg only one / single mirigO deer mising today misinga once muiNTO one mukia chief mukO face mujia amidst muTa fist muNun mahua tree munujae dream mulukO world meNDa sheep merOm goat meLai dissolve mesar day mese to mix r rOi stay rOge to pour rOngko glutton rOj to milk (a cow) rOdOLe grind raitOg scratch rauLia sorcerer sakaisO demon raj collapse rajakOnOn prince rajakONjcelan princess rajiaire deny raNDirae window randuNi cook ramtiLa til rampNne- to scratch ramaikOte tattered cloth ramaj torn rasing flower rigRi pebble riNO debt rim be able rir grind ririb grasshopper rugO disease rugObasaRae cure ruga sickly rungkub assemble rupaDegan silvery resuNO garlic l lO cleeper lOa iron lOuDi wave (water) lOka down, land lOng look at lOde load lOTOb soil lOTObDO earth colour lObeng soft lOmba stretch lOr to hide (one self) lOlOb hot lOlObDak hot water la to dig lai naval lakke to spade laku bear (fruit) lage continue (an action) langrui rooster laNDa son laNDam siali fruit laNDi daughter labO profit lara laughter lalaj fire lalaj-kuaLesOng fire & smoke liba erase limbu lemon lukO people lujir heavy luTa water pot luTi shrub luTuNi chignon luDia cocoanut lutur ear luturgiri ear-drum lubO greed lubOk veil lulur recoil, fold leOTena to tumble leke to write leDahDe curse leber to sleep lerang moon lerangtOr moonlight lelej to get angry lerab sprout
s sOOjO easy sOOrO town sOe tolerate sOng to buy sOngkO ouvula sOngkLe welcome sOj to learn sOja decorate sOtru enemy sOpa clean sOb to catch sOrObeleng lizard sOrgO heaven sOrae cause to graze sOru small sOre to graze sOLOk straight saajO help saasO brave saitO to save saebO foreigner sakOe ape sagiiti left arm sangkNa curry sangge with saDe leave satObaia citi snake sanObui mother’s younger sister sanabOk parting line of the hair sabnu soap sabrONj whole sabrOiN all samur face sangsang turmeric saLangsang yellow saLikOte sari saLirae wife’s younger sister sasu father’s sister siON lion siaLO jackle sikaria hunter sike to plough singkDi chain singkuLi window, shutter singgO horn (of animal) sitinDe sleeping on side sini plow simO bean simbOg shrab simONTO cement sirO blood vessel silitOm lip silOg to plough suaNli cockroach su to lay (an egg) suinO heaven sukO happiness sukuDak gourd sugei too much, very much suDu brother in law sutOrOm thread suturu enemy sunduru red sundururO reddish subudinO everyday sumusing tree sumure sink surupi suck surur to smoke sursu mustard suLita wick sula gram sulur black gram susuk to sew susuter egg susur lentil sekaLO morning sej to cut seTOg rotten fruit seDak door seNae red gram sekam friend sengkOe chicken senggOn wood semOr knife seram antelope selOk dog selan girl selanjip hen seN seNr blow (nose)
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