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The way speech sounds are produced can be divided into three categories depending upon the part the speech organs play in the production of speech. They are
Generally the process of getting the air stream moving is initiated in the lungs. This is known as the pulmonic air stream. The other two are the glottalic air stream in which the larynx with the glottis firmly closed is the initiator and the velaric air stream where only the air in the mouth is set in motion.
This refers to the part played by the vocal cords in the production of speech. The opening between the vocal cords is glottis. If the glottis is wide enough to permit the air to pass through without any obstruction, a voiceless sound id produced (प pa, ट ṭa and क ka, etc.). If the glottis is completely closed, a glottal stop is produced. If the glottis is half-open, the vocal cords vibrate and the sound produced is a voiced sound (ब ba, ड ḍa, ग ga, म ma, न na, etc.).
The articulation process is the modification of sound waves produced by the air stream, phonation, and oral-nasal processes. The parts that are involved in articulation may be divided into three groups – the resonating cavities or chambers (oral, nasal and pharyangeal), the articulators (the lower lip, the tongue, the uvula, and the lower jaw), and the points of articulation (the upper lip, the upper teeth, the alveolar ridge, the palate and the velum).
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Any articulation involving constriction of the vocal tract at two (or rarely more) distinct points. The two constrictions may be equally radical (as in the co-articulated stop [kp]), or one may be less radical than the other (as in the labialized velar plosive [kw]). The first type is called coordinate co-articulation and the second ‘secondary co-articulation’.
Narrowly, any articulation which accompanies another or primary articulation and which involves a less radical constriction than that primary articulation, such as labialization or velarization. And broadly, any of various independent articulatory gesture which can be performed simultaneously with another articulation, including the two just mentioned as well as nasalization, palatalization, glottalization and others.
Labialisation: The presence in an articulation of some f/degree of lip-rounding as a secondary articulation. In the IPA, labialisation is represented by a superscript w: hence [sw] represents a labialised vioceless alveolar fricative, such as often occurs in English soon or swim. This is a phonological process by which some segment acquires lip rounding which was absent.
Palatalization: The phenomenon in which a segment whose primary articulation is at some other location is articulated with a secondary articulation involving the raising of the front of the tongue towards the palate (or with the back consonants) the moving of the constriction forward towards the palate. Palatalization is transcribed in the IPA by a superscript [j] (e.g., [pj], [kj]. So, this is a phonological process in which a non-palatal segment is converted to a palatal or palato-alveolar segment.
Velarization: The process during the articulation of a segment of the raising of the back of the tongue towards the velum as a secondary articulation. Velarization is represented in the IPA by a following superscript [ɤ], as in [lɤ]. So, velarization is phonological process in which such an articulation is introduced into a segment which formerly lacked it.
Pharyngealization: The phenomenon in which a segment articulated at some other position is produced with a simultaneous secondary articulation in which the root of the tongue is retracted into the pharynx. Pharyngealization is transcribed in the IPA with a superscript [ς] as in dς]. So, it is a phonological process in which a non-pharyngeal segment is converted to a pharyngeal segment.
Glottalization: A very broad term applied loosely to a wide range of phenomenon involving some kind of activity in the glottis, including at least glottalling, glottal reinforcement, the use of creaky voice, and the use of a glottalic air stream mechanism.
Broadly speaking, it is a synonym for co-articulation. And narrowly speaking in which both constrictions are of equal degree.
Aspiration is a term in Phonetics for the audible breath which may accompany a sound’s articulation, as when plosive consonants are released. It is usually symbolized by a small raised [h] following the main symbol. Example, the word pin [phin]. But Hindi has contrasts of aspiration applying to both voiceless and voiced stops, viz. a four-way contrast of [p-], [ph-], [b-], and [bh-].
The perceptual effect in speech of a lowered velum. It is a distinctive and perceptually prominent resonance in speech, resembling that of a lowered velum, but produced by any of several quite distinct configurations of the oral cavity.
Pitch, or tone of voice, refers to variation of tone in total language, and in languages with melodic accent.
Tone refers to discrete pitches or pitch contours used by certain languages to distinguish words from each other.
Intonation is the variation of tone used when speaking. Intonation and Vocal stress are the two elements of linguistic prosody.
In Hindi, Vowels can be written as independent letters, or by using a variety of diacritical marks which are written above, below, before or after the consonant to which they belong. When consonants occur together in clusters, special conjunct letters are used. The order of the letters is based on articulatory phonetics.
| Short | Long | Diphthongs | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Initial | Diacritic | Initial | Diacritic | Initial | Diacritic | |
| Unrounded low Central | अ a | क ka | आ ā | का kā | ||
| Unrounded high front | इ i | कि ki | ई ī | की kī | ||
| Rounded high back | उ u | कु ku | ऊ ū | कू kū | ||
| Syllabic Variant | ऋ ṛ | कृ kṛ | ||||
| Short | Long | Diphthongs | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Initial | Diacritic | Initial | Diacritic | Initial | Diacritic | |
| Unrounded front | क ē | के ē | ऐ ai | कै kai | ||
| Rounded Back | ओ ō | को kō | औ au | कौ kau | ||
अं aṅ anusvaara – nasalised vowel अँ aṃ anunāsika/ chandrabindu – nasalised vowel अः aḥ visarga- It adds voiceless breath after vowel
| Voiceless plosives | Voiced Plosives | Nasals | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Unaspirated | aspirated | Unaspirated | aspirated | ||
| Velar | क ka | ख kha | ग ga | घ gha | ङ ṅa |
| Palatal | च ca | छ cha | ज ja | झ jha | ञ na |
| Retroflex | ट ṭa | ठ ṭha | ड ḍa | ढ ḍha | ण ṇa |
| Dental | त ta | थ tha | द da | ध dha | न na |
| Labial | प pa | फ pha | ब ba | भ bha | म ma |
| Palatal | Retroflex | Dental | Labial | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sonorants | य ya | र ra | ल la | व va |
| Sibilants | श śa | ष ṣa | स sa |
ह ha
When two or more consecutive consonants appear in the input, they make a consonant conjunct. The last consonant takes the full form and the preceding consonants become half consonants. (Go through www.unicode.org)
त्क - tka, क्ष - kṣa, त्र - tra, ज्ञ - jna, न्न - nna, त्य - tya, ह्य - hya, त्त्व - ttva, त्त - tt
a ā i ī u ū ṛ ē ai ō au
| P of A | Bilabial | Labio-dental –v +v | Dental –v +v | Alveolar –v +v | Post-alveolar –v +v | Palato-alveolar –v +v | Palatal –v +v | Velar –v +v | Glottal –v +v |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| M of A ↓ | |||||||||
| Plosive or Stop | प ब | ट ड | क ग | ||||||
| Affricate | च ज | ||||||||
| Nasal | म | न | |||||||
| Lateral | ल | ||||||||
| Fricative | फ भ | थ द | स | र | ह | ||||
| Semi-vowel | व | य |
| Bilabial | Labio-dental –v +v | Dental –v +v | Alveolar –v +v | Retroflex –v +v | Palatal –v +v | Velar –v +v | Uvular –v +v | Phary-ngeal –v +v | Glottal –v +v | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Plosive | प ब | ट ड | च ज | क ग | ||||||
| Nasal | म | न | ण | ञ | ङ | |||||
| Trill | र | |||||||||
| Tap or Flap | ||||||||||
| Fricative | स | ह | ||||||||
| Lateral fricative | ||||||||||
| Approxi-mant | ||||||||||
| Lateral Approxi-mant |
According to the etymology, the morphemes of Hindi words are divided into three parts :
Eg. कल kəl tomorrow क , ल After breaking ‘कल’ word as क , ल it doesn’t mean anything Eg. पर pər but प , र After breaking ‘पर’ word as प , र it doesn’t mean anything.
1) देवालय = देव + आलय devaləy = dev + aləy temple = god + house 2) राजपुरूष = राज + पुरूष rajpuruṣ = raj + puruṣ man = kingdom man belongs to kingdom or kingship
i) दशानन = दश + आनन dəšanən = dəš + anən with ten = ten + faces faces ‘Ravən’ ‘dəšanən’ means with ten faces, it is the another name of Ravən – the king of l2nka. ii) पंकज = पंक + ज pənkəj = pənk + j lotus = mud born in ‘pənkəj’ means born in mud but it is more popular by the name of lotus.
According to the originity, the Hindi morphemes are divided into four types.
According to the use (word-formation) of Hindi language, the morphemes of it may be divided into three groups
They can be distinguished on the ground of their semantic contents and the difference in their function. If compared with prefixes and suffixes, base morphemes are larger in number.
The bases may be divided into eight groups – (parts of speech)
The first four groups consist of morphemes which can be inflected.
The first two groups consist of those morphemes taking prefixes & suffixes showing gender, number and case distinction, they are called nouns and pronouns.
The third group consists of bases which inflect for gender and number. They are called as Adjectives.
The fourth group consists of those morphemes taking suffixes showing a three-fold distinction of gender, number and person and tense or mood. They are called as verbs.
Semantic classification of nouns. Hindi nouns may be grouped into three classes
1. व्यक्तिवाचक संज्ञा vyəktiwacək səŋja / Proper noun
i) रमा पढ़ती है ।
rəma pəɽhəti hẽ |
Rama Reads the book.
ii) यह लालकिला है ।
yəh laləkila hϩ̃ |
This is the redford.
Here, rəma & lalkila are the proper nouns - rəma is the name of the person and lalkila is the name of the place.
Other examples - 1) श्री कृष्ण Sri:kri:snə / Hindu Lord 2) भारत bharət / India 3) हिमालय himaləy / Himalay 4) दिल्ली dilli / Delhi 5) महाभारत məhabharət / Mahabharat
2. जातिवाचक संज्ञा jatiwacək səŋya / Common Noun : i) कबूतर डाल पर बैठे है। kəbu:tər ḍal pər bϨiṭhe hϩ̃ | Doves have sat on the branch. ii) माली पौधो को पानी दे रहा है। mali: pəu:dho ko pani: de rəha hϩ̃ | Gardener is giving water to the plants.
Here, kəbu:tər and mali: are the common nouns.
Other examples – 1) मनुष्य mənuʂjə/ human being 2) नदी nədi: / river 3) गाय gay / cow 4) नारी nəri: / female
3. बाववाचक संज्ञा bhavəwacək səŋgya / Abstract Noun i) बुढ़ापा जीवन का अभिशाप है। buɽhapa ji:vən ka əbhišap hϩ̃ | Oldage is the curse of life. ii) आम में मिठास है। am mẽ miṭhas hϩ̃ | The mango has sweetness.
Here, buɽhapa word is showing the particular stage of the human life and Miṭhas word is representing the quality of the thing. These are the Abstract nouns.
Other examples - 1) बचपन bəcpən / childhood 2) मुटापा muṭapa / fatness 3) चढ़ाई cəɽhai: /climbing 4) थकावट thəkavəṭ /tiredness
4. समुदायवाचक संज्ञा / səmuday wacək səŋgya / Collective Noun : i) चौपाल में आज सभा हो रही है । cəu:pal mẽ aj səbha ho rəhi: hϩ̃ | Today meeting is running at square. ii) कक्षा में विद्यार्थी बैठे हुये है । kəksa mẽ vidjarthi: bϨṭhe huje hϨ | students, have sat in the classroom.
Here, səbha and kəkša words are the collective nouns.
Other examples - 1) सेना sena: / army 2) भीड़ bhi:ɽ / crowd 3) पुस्तकालय pustəkaləy / Library 4) दल dəl / group
5. द्रव्यवाचक संज्ञा / drəvjəwacək səŋgya / Material Noun
1. यह घीः बहुत अच्चा है।
yəh ghi: bəhut accha hϨ |
This ghee is very good.
2. ये भूषण सोने के है।
ye bhu:sən sone ke nϨ |
These ornaments are of gold.
Here, ghi: word and sond: word represent the liquidity and materiality of the thing. Other examples:
1) तेल tel / oil 2) चाँदी candi: / silver 3) चावल cavəl / rice 4) गेहूँ genhu: / wheat 5) कोयला kojəla / coal
Hindi language has two types of numbers.
1. Singular number एकवचन /ekvəcən 2. Plural number बहुवचन / bəhuvəcən एकवचन बहुवचन ekvəcən bəhuvəcən (Singular) (Plural)
1. लड़का लड़के
ləɽka ləɽkẽ
boy boys
2. गाय गाये
gay gayẽ
cow cows
3. बच्चा बच्चें
bəccha bəcchẽ
child children
4. कपड़ा कपड़े
kəpɽa kəpɽe
cloth clothes
5. माता माताएँ
mata mataẽ
mother mothers
6. पुस्तक पुस्तकें
pustək pustəkẽ
book books
7. स्त्री स्तीयाँ
stri: striyã
lady ladies
8. टोपि टोपियाँ
topi: topiyã
cap caps
Other Eg. of ekvəcən / singular
1. सिपाही 2. बन्दर
sipahi: bəndər
soldier monkey
3. मोर 4. बालक
mor balək
peacock child
5. हिरन
hirən
deer
Other Eg. of bəhuvəcən / Plurəl
1. गुरूजन 2. रोटियाँ
guru:jən roṭiyã
teachers chapaties
3. लताएँ 4. बेटे
lətaẽ beṭe
climbers sons
Eg.
1. गाय घास खा रही है |
gay ghas kha rəhi: hϩ̃ |
The cow is eating grass.
1-i. गायें घास खा रही है þ|
gayẽ ghas kha rəhi: hẽ |
Cows are eating grass.
Here, ‘gay’ is singular in number and ‘gayẽ’ is plural in number.
Eg.
2. मैं फल खा रहा हूँ |
məĩ phəl kha rəha hũ: |
I am eating fruits.
2-i. हम फल खा रहे है |
həm phəl kha rəhe hϩ̃ |
We are eating fruits.
Here, ‘məĩ’ is singular and ‘həm’ is plural number.
3. वह विधालय जा रहा है |
vəh vidyaləy ja rəha hϩ̃ |
He is going to school.
3-i. वे विधालय जा रहे है |
ve vidyaləy ja rəhe hϩ̃ |
They are going to school.
Here, ‘vəh’ is singular number and ‘ve’ is plural number.
Eg. 1) मोर नाच रहा है | mor nac rəha hϩ̃ | The peacock is dancing. 1-i) मोर नाच रहे है | mor nac rəhe hϩ̃ | Peacocks are dancing.
Here, ‘rəha hϩ̃ ’ is singular number and ‘rəhe hϩ̃ ’ is plural number.
Eg. 2) बालक सो रहा है | balək so rəha hϩ̃ | child/kid is sleeping. 2-i) बालक सो रहे है | balək so rəhẽ hϩ̃ | kids/children are sleeping.
Here, ‘rəha hϩ̃ ’ is singular and ‘ rəhe hϩ̃ ’ is plural verb.
From the above examples, it is clear that, for singular number /-a/ and for plural /-ẽ/ is added to the auxiliary verb /rəh-/
Sometimes plural forms are used instead of singular forms.
Eg. 1) भीष्म पितामह तो ब्रम्हचारी थे | bhiṣmə pitaməh to brəmhəcari: the | Bhisma pitamah was a bachelor. 2) गुरूजी आज नही आये | guru:ji: aj nəhi: ae | Teacher has not come today. 3) शिवाजी सच्चे वीर थे | šivaji: səcche vi:r the | Shiwaji was a real brave (man).
Here, ‘the’ is the IIIrd person, plural verb and ‘ae’ is the IIIrd person, plural verb, used for singular nouns / subject.
Eg. 1) मालिक ने कर्मजारी ते कहा | हम मीटिंग मे जा रहे है | malik ne kərm cari: se kəha, hum mi:ting mẽ ja rəhe hϩ̃ |
i) boss asked to his worker, that he is going to the meeting boss told to worker, ‘we are going to the meeting.
Here, ‘hum’ is plural form of pronoun used in place of ‘məĩ’ I sing. 1st person.
Eg. i) तुम्हारे केश बड़े सुदर है | tumhare keš bəɽe sundər hϩ̃ | Your hairs is very beautiful. keš ‘hair’ used here as plural. ii) लोग कहते है | log kəhte hϩ̃ | people said. log – ‘people’ – used here as plural. Other Eg. 1) अश्रु əsru - tear 2) प्राण praṇ - life 3) दर्शन dəršən - seeing 4) दर्शक daršək - audience 5) समाचार səmacar - news 6) दाम dam - value 7) होश hoš - conscious 8) भाग्य bhagyə - luck
1. Many people used ‘tum’ you – plural form pronoun in place of ‘tu:’ you-singular pronoun for regular use.
Eg. i) मित्र, तुम कब आए ? mitrə, tum kəb ae? Friend, when did you come back? tum ‘you’ 2nd plural - used here as singular.
2. Some words are plural by meaning but used as singularly in the sentence.
Eg. 1) वर्ग vərg - class 2) वृन्द vru:nd - group Eg. सैनीक दल səinik dəl - army 3) दल dəl - group 4) गण gəṇ - group 5) जाति jati Eg. स्त्री जाति stri: jati - group of women
1. Feminine words ends with अ / ə makes plural changing by to एँ / ẽ अ / ə to एँ / ẽ
əkvəcən bəhuvəcən 1) आँख ãkh - eye आँखें ãkhẽ - eyes 2) बहन bəhən - sister बहनें bəhnẽ - sisters 3) गाय gay - cow गायें gayẽ - cows 4) सड़क səɽək - road सड़कें əɽəkẽ - roads
ekvəcən bəhuvəcən आ to ए a e 1) रूपया rupya - money रूपये rupye - money 2) कुत्ता kutta - dog कुत्ते kutte - dongs 3) घोड़ा ghoɽa - horse घोड़े ghoɽẽ - horses 4) बेटा beṭa - son बेटे beṭe - sons
Add ẽ to feminine words which ends with – ekvəcən bəhuvəcən 1) कन्या kənya-girl कन्याएँ kənyaẽ-girls 2) कविता kəvita-poem कविताएँ kəvitaẽ-poems 3) साला šala-school सालाएँ šalaẽ-schools 4) सेना sena–army सेनाएँ senaẽ-armies 5) माता mata-mother माताएँ mataẽ - mothers 6) अध्यापिका ədhyapika–teacher अध्यापिकाएँ ədhyapikaẽ-teachers
Add yã to the feminine words which ends with ị, & ị: and at the same time change the i: to i converts the word from singular to plural.
ekvəcən bəhuvəcən Add yã to the word ends with i & i: 1) बुद्धि buddhi - knowledge बुद्धिएँ - buddhiyã - knowledges 2) कली kəli: - bud कलिएँ - kaliyã - buds 3) थाली thali: - plate थालिएँ - thaliyã - plates 4) नदी hədi: - river नदीएँ - nədiyã - rivers 5) लकड़ी ləkɽi: - wooden stick लकड़िएँ - ləkɽiyã - wooden sticks
Convert ã in place of a to the feminine words ending with ya. ekvəcən bəhuvəcən 1) गुड़िया guɽiya - doll गुड़िएँ guɽiyã - dolls 2) चुहिया cuhiya - female rat चुहिएँ cuhiyã - female rats 3) डिबिया ḍibiya - box डिबिएँ ḍibiyã - boxes 4) बुढ़िया buɽhiya - old-lady बुढ़िएँ buɽhiyã - old-ladies
Add ẽ / एँ to the words which end with u, u: or əu and convert long u: to short u.
ekvəcən bəhuvəcən 1) वधू vədhu: - birde वघूएँ vədhuẽ - brides 2) वस्तू vəstu: - thing वस्तुएँ vəstuẽ - things 3) धातू dhatu: - material धातूएँ - dhatuẽ - materials
ekvəcən bəhuvəcən Eg. 1) अध्यापक ədhyapək-teacher अध्यापक वृन्द ədhyapək vrund -group of teachers 2) विध्यार्थी vidhyarthi:-student विध्यार्थी गण vidhyarthi: gən - students 3) गरीब gəri:b-poor (people) गरीब लोग gəri:b log-poor peoples 4) गुरू guru:-teacher गुरू जन guru: jən-teachers 5) मित्र mitrə-friend मित्र वर्ग mitrə vərg-friends 6) आप ap-you आप लोग ap log - you - plural-you people. 7) सेना sena-army सेना दल sena dəl-armies
Singular Plural ekvəcən bəhuvəcən 1) क्षमा kṣəma - pardon क्षमा kṣəma- pardon 2) जल jəl - water जल jəl - water 3) गिरि giri - mountain गिरि giri - mountain 4) राजा raja - king राजा raja - king 5) नेता neta - leader नेता neta - leader 6) प्रेम prem - love प्रेम prem - love 7) क्रोध krodh - anger क्रोध krodh - anger 8) पानी pani: - water पानी pani: - water
Hindi nouns has two types of genders. 1. पुल्लिंग / Masculine gender pulliŋ 2. स्त्रीलिंग / Feminine gender stri: liŋ Eg. 1) लड़का गेंद से खेल रहा है | ləɽəka gẽnd se khel rəha hẽ | A boy is playing with the ball. 2) लड़की कमीज पर प्रेस कर रही है | ləɽki: kəmi:j pər pres kər rəhi: hϩ̃ | A girl is ironing on the shirt.
Here, ləɽka is the masculine gender and ləɽki: is the feminine gender. Other examples of pulliŋ / masculine gender.
1) कुत्ता kutta / dog 2) पेड़ peɽ / tree 3) नर nər / male 4) घर ghər / house Other examples of stri:liŋ / Feminine gender. 1) गाय gay / cow 2) घड़ी ghəɽi: / watch 3) कुर्सी kursi: / chair 4) छड़ी chəɽi: / stick 5) नारी na:ri: / female
There are some rules for distinguishing the masculine gender and feminine gender of the Hindi language [Identification of gender by - ]
Masculine gender: Words which ends with /a, pa, au, pən, na/
Some of nouns which end with consonants. For example:
1) आ /a ↝ Eg. मोटा moṭa - fat 2) पा /pa ↝ बुढ़ापा buɽhapa - oldness 3) आब /av ↝ चढ़ाव cədhav - climb 4) पन /pən ↝ लड़कपन ləɽək pən - childhood 5) न / n ↝ लेन देन len – den
2. The name of ranges, month, days & some planets are comes under the masculine gender. Some of nouns which end with consonants. For example:
1) पर्वत pərvət - mountains ↝ Eg. हिमालय himaləy - Himalay विन्ध्याचल vindhya cəl – the range of vindhya chal 2) मास mas - month ↝ Eg. वैशाख vaišakh बसंत bəsənt - spring 3) वार var - days ↝ Eg. मंगल məŋgəl - tuesday बुध budh - wednesday 4) ग्रह grəh - planets ↝ Eg. राहु rəhu - Rahu केतु ketu - ketu
Eg. 1) पीपल pi:pəl - The pipal 2) नीम ni:m - The nim 3) आम am - The mango 4) सागौन sagɔn - The saguan 5) बड़ bəɽ - The banyan
Eg. 1) बाजरा bajəra - bajra 2) गहूँ gẽhu: - wheat 3) चना cəna - gram 4) जौ jəu : - The jau 5) उड़द uɽəd - The black gram
Eg. 1) पानी pani: - water 2) तांबा tamba - copper 3) लोहा loha - iron 4) तेल tel - oil
Eg. 1) हीरा hi:va - diamond 2) पन्ना pənna - a precious stone 3) मोती moti: - pearl
Eg. 1) सिर sir - hear 2) मस्तक məstək - forehead 3) दाँत dant - teeth 4) कान kən - ear 5) गला gəla - neck 6) हाथ hath - hand 7) पाँव pãṿ - leg 8) तालु talu: - toung 9) नख nəkh - nail
Eg. 1) समुद्र səmundrə - ocean / sea 2) भारत bharət - India 3) देश deš - country 4) नगर nəgər - state/area 5) द्वीप dvi:p - Ireland 6) आकाश akaš - sky 7) पाताल patal - under the earth 8) घर ghər - house 9) सरोवर sərovər - lake
Eg. अ उ ए ओ ə u e o क ख ग घ kə khə gə ghə k kh g gh च छ य र ल cə chə yə rə lə c ch y r l व श və šə v š
The name of ranges, month, days, planets, trees, grains, liquids and materials, different stones, body parts, ocean, places, lands are come under masculine gender.
- vowel ending - consonant ending
The words ends with – 1. ख khə Eg. 1) ईख i:khə - sugarcane 2) भूख bhu:khə - hunger 3) राख rakhə - ash 4) लाख lakhə - lakh 5) देखरेख dekhərekhə - caretaking. 2. The words ends with - 1) ट ṭ Eg. झंझट jhənjhəṭ-complication 2) हट həṭ Eg. आहट ahəṭ - slow noise of Walking चिकानाहट cikhahəṭ - smoothness 3) वट vəṭ Eg. बनावट bənavəṭ - construction सजावट səjavəṭ - decoration. 3. The words ends with ई /i:/, ऊ /u:/, त /t/, स /s/ and अनुस्वार / ँ / are feminines. (1) ई i Eg. 1) रोटी roṭi: - cəpati: 2) टोपी ṭopi : - caplhat 3) नदी nədi: - river 4) चिठ्ठी ciṭṭhi : - letter (2) ऊ u: Eg. 1) लू lu: - sunstrock 2) बालू balu: - sand 3) दारू dəru: - wine 4) सरसों sərsõ - musturd (3) त t Eg. 1) रात rat - night 2) बात bat - matter 3) छत chət - roof (4) स / s Eg. 1) प्यास pjas - thirst 2) साँस sãs - breath (5) अनुस्वार anuswar ँ Eg. 1) खड़ाऊँ khəɽaũ - slipper. 4. The name of languages, dialects and scripts are feminine. Eg. 1) हिंदी hindi: The Hindi 2) संस्कृत sənskru:t -The Sanskrit 3) देवनागरी devnagəri: - The language of Aryans. 4) पहाड़ी pəhaɽi: - The language of hilly people 5) तेलुगु telugu - The language of Andrapradesh 6) पंजाबी pənjabi: - The language of punjab state 7) गुरूमुखी guru:mukhi: - The language of punjabi religion 5. The words ends with इया iyə are feminine. Eg. 1) कुटिया kuṭiya - hut 2) खटिया khəṭiya – bed 3) चिड़िया ciɽiya - bird 6. The name of rivers are feminine. Eg. 1) यमुना yamunə: river name 2) गंगा gəŋga - river name 3) गोदावरी godavari: - river name 4) कावेरी kaveri: - river name 7. The name of tithis / तिथि are feminine. Eg. 1) पहली pəhəli: - first 2) प्रतिपदा prətipəda - first day after far moon and no moon night. 3) पूर्णिमा pu:rnima: - full moon night. 8. The planet earth is feminine. Eg. पृथ्वी pruthvi: - earth 9. The name of nəksətra / are feminine. Eg. 1) अश्विनी əšvini - aswini 2) भरणी bhərṇi : bharni 3) रोहिनी rohiṇi: - rohiṇi:
There are some suffixes which can change the Gender of a morpheme from masculine to feminine. By adding the suffix at final position to the morpheme.
Eg. 1. ई
Masculine Feminine
1. घोड़ा ghoɽa - horse घोड़ी ghoɽi: - Mare
2. देव dev - god देवी devi: - goddess
3. दादा dada - grandfather दादी dadi: - grandmother
4. लड़का ləɽka - boy लड़की ləɽki: - girl
5. बकरा bəkra - goat बकरी bəkri: - she goat
2. इया iya
1. चूहा cuha - male rat चुहिया cuhiya - female rat
2. बेटा beṭa - son बिटिया biṭiya - daughter
3. गुड्ड़ा guɽɽa - male doll गुड़िया guɽiya - female doll
4. बन्दर bəndər - male monkey बन्दरिया bəndəriya - female monkey
5. बूढ़ा bu:ɽha - oldman बुढ़िया buϨhiya - old lady woman
3. इन / in
1. माली mali: - man (male) he gardner
मालिन woman (female) she gardener.
2. सुनार sunar - man goldsmith
सुनारिन sunarin - woman goldsmith
3. धोबी dhobi: - loundryman
धोबिन dhobin - loundry woman.
4. चमार cəmar man(male) he cobbler
चमारिन cəmarin - woman(female) she cobbler
4. नी / ni:
1. मोर mor - peacock मोरनी morni: - peahen
2. हाथी hathi: - male elephant हाथिनी hathini: - female elephant
3. सिंह simh - male lion सिंहनी simhəni: - female lion
5. आनी ani:
1. नौकर nəukər - servant
नौकरानी nəukərani: - maid servant
2. देवर devər - younger brother in law
देवरानी devrani: - younger sister in law
3. सेठ seṭh - businessman
सेठानी seṭhani: - wife of the businessman
4. जेठ jeṭh - elder brother in law
जेठानी jeṭhani: - elder sister in law
6. आइन ain
1)पाण्डित pəṇḍit – priest
पाण्डिताइन pəṇḍitain – wife of priest
2)टाकुर ṭhakur – the landowner of Rajput community
टाकुराइन ṭhəkurain–the landlady of Rajput community
–Wife of landlord
7. आ / a
1) बाल bal - male child
बाला bala - female child
2) छात्र chhatrə - student (male)
छात्रा chhatrea - student (female)
3) शिष्य šiṣyə - student(male)
शिष्या šiṣya - student (female)
4) आचार्य acharyə - male principal
आचार्या acharya- female principal
5) महाशय məhašəy - sir
महाशया məhasəya - madam
6) प्रिय priy - lovable
प्रिया priya - beloved
Some masculine words change to he feminine with change of suffixes from the final vc to final vcv and from v to vcv.
1. अक को इका (करके) ək to ika
Masculine Feminine
1) पाठक paṭhək - male reader
पाठिका paṭhika - female reader
2) अध्यापक ədhyapək - male lecturer
अध्यापिका ədhyapika - female lecturer
3) नायक nayək - hero
नायिका nayika - heroin
4) गायक gayək - male singer
गायिका gayika - female singer
2. इनी (इणी) ini: (iῃi):
1) तपस्वी təpəswi: - male saint
तपस्विनी təpəswini: - female saint
2) स्वामी swami: - male lord
स्वामिनी swamini: - female lord
3) हितकारी hitkari: -male wellwisher
हितकारिणी hitkariṇi: -female wellwisher
4) परोपकारी pəropkari:
परोपकारिणी pəropkariṇi:
Some masculine words which totally change in feminine morpheme. What doesnot take any suffix.
Masculine Feminine 1) पता pita: - father माता mata - mother 2) नर nər - male मादा madə - female 3) राजा raja - king राणी rani: - queen 4) पुरूष puruʂ - gents स्त्री stri: - lady 5) आदमी adəmi: - man औरत əurət - woman 6) भाई bhai: - brother भाभी beheni - sister in law
Attaching the male / nər or female / mada word to the lived (animate) nouns which are originally masculine or feminine by nature.
/nər/ prefix adds to feminine to show masculine gender.
/mada/ is added with masculine to show the feminine gender.
1. From Feminine to Masculine Eg. 1) मकखी məkkhi:-fly नर मकखी nər məkkhi:-male fly 2) कोयल koyəl-cuckoo नर कोयल nər koyəl-male cuckoo 3) मचली məchhəli :-fish नर मचली nər məchhəli:-male fish 4) गिलहरी gilhəri :-squirrel नर गिलहरी nər gilhəri:-male squirrel 2. From masculine to feminine 1) तोता tota-parrot मादा तोता mada tota-female parrot 2) कौवा kəuva-crow मादा कौवा mada kəuva-female crow 3) खरगोश khərgoš-rabbit मादा खरगोश mada khərgoš-female rabbit 4) भेड़िया bheɽiya-wolf मादा भेड़िया mada bheɽiya-female wolf
Hindi language has eight types of cases showing here with related suffixes / pərsərg / परसर्ग.
case / कारक karək suffixes / परसर्ग pərsərg 1) कर्ता kərta - nominative case ने,ne by 2) कर्म kərm – objective case को,ko to 3) करण kərəṇ - Instrumental case से,se,के साथ,ke sath के द्वारा ke dvara with 4) संप्रदान səmprədan - dative case के लिए, को for,to 5) अपादान əpadan - ablative case से (पुरूष) se (pruthək) (apart) from 6) सम्बम्ध səmbəndh - Relative case का, के, की,kə,ke,ki:belong to this /that रा, रॆ, री,ra, re, ri: 7) अधिकरण ədhikərəṇ-Locative case में, mẽ - in,पर pər–on. 8) सम्बोधन səmbodhən - vocative case हे! hey! अरे! əre !
कर्ता कारक ↝ suffix ने, ne (by) kərta karək
Eg. 1) गीता ने दूध पिया । gita ne dhu:dh piya | Gita drank the milk 2) राम ने रावण को मारा । ram ne ravəṇ ko mara | Ram killed to Ravan. 3) श्रीकृष्ण ने अर्जुन का साथ दिया । šrikruṣṇə ne ərjun ka sath diya | Lord shrikrisna supported to Arjuna.
Here, gita, ram & šrikruṣṇə are the nouns of the sentences du:dh ravən & arjun are the objectives of the sentences. When the suffix ‘ne’, direct relate the noun to the verb, the sentence is called kərta karək or nominative case.
This ‘ne’ suffix is used only with the past tense – finite or transitive verbs. This is not used with the present and future tense verbs.
Eg. 1) लड़की स्कूल जाती है । ləɽki: sku:l jati: nϩ̃ | girl goes to school 2) वह फल खाता है । vəh phəl khata hϩ̃ | he eats fruit 3) वह फल खायेगा । vəh phəl khayega | he will eat the fruit
The suffix ‘ne’ is not used with the present and future tense verbs, even when the sentence is transitive or finite. Here, sku:l, phəl are the object in the sentence.
Eg. 1) वह हँसा । vəh həsã | he laughed.
The suffix ‘ne’ is not used with the intransitive or non-finite sentences even when the sentence is having past tense verb.
Eg. 1) बालक को सो जाना चाहिए । balək ko so jana cahiẽ | The child should go to sleep. 2) सीता से पुस्तक पढ़ी गयी । sita se pustək pəɽhi: gəyi: The book has read by sita. 3) रोगी से चला भी नही जाता । rogi: se cəla bhi: nəhi: jata | The patient is not even able to walk.
Sometimes, noun takes suffix ‘ko’ or ‘se’ instead of ‘ne’ suffix in same sentences. (Passive sentences).
कर्म कारक kərm karək ↝ suffix को ko (to)
Eg. 1) मोहन ने साँप को मारा । mohən ne sãp ko mara mohan killed to snake.
Here, This sentence is transitive having object ‘sãp’. When the suffix ‘ko’ direct relates the object to the verb, the sentence is called objective case.
This ‘ko’ suffix is used only with the past tense – transitive verb.
Eg. 1) लड़की ने पत्र लिखा । ləɽki: ne pətrə likha girl wrote letter.
Some sentences doesn’t use ‘ko’ suffix even with the transitive past tense verb.
करण कारक kərəṇ karək ↝ suffix से se, के द्वारा, के साथ , ke dwara, ke sath (with)
Eg. 1) अर्जुन ने जयद्रथ को बाण से मारा । ərjun ne jəydrəth ko baṇ se mara | Arjun killed jaydrath with the arrow. 2. बालक गेंद से खेल रहे है । balək gend se khel rəhe hϩ̃ | boys are playing with the ball.
In the first sentence, ‘baṇ’ is the instrument used to kill.
In the second sentence ‘gend’ is the instrument used to play.
सम्प्रदान कारण səmprədan karək ↝ suffix के लिये ke liye, को ko (For, to)
Eg. 1) स्वास्त्य के लिये सूर्य को नमस्कार करो। swasthə ke liye suryə ko nəmskar kəro | greet to sun for the good health. 2) गुरूजी को फल दो । guru:ji: ko phəl do | give fruits to the teacher.
səmprədan means to give or for somebody something. In the first sentence, ‘swasthə ke liye’ means for the health.
In the second sentence ‘guruji ko’ means to the teacher shows the sentences are dative or səmprədan karək.
अपादान कारक əpadan karək ↝ suffix se (पृथक) se (pruthək) (apart) from
Eg. 1) बच्चा छत से गिर पड़ा । bəcchda chhət se gir pəɽa | kid felt down from the root. 2) संगीत घोड़े से गिर पड़ी । səngi:ta goɽe se gir pəɽi: sangita felt down from the horse.
Ablative means apart somebody from something. Here ‘se’ suffix making a child apart from the slab in the first sentence and sangita – a girl from horse in the second sentence. So the sentences are ablative or apadən karək.
सम्बम्ध कारक səmbəndh karək ↝ suffix का, ka, के, ke, कि, ki: belongs to:
Eg. 1) यह राधेश्याम का बेटा है। yəh radhešyam ka beṭa hϩ̃ | He is son of Radheshyam (Radheshyam’s son) 2) यह कमला की गाय है। yəh kəmla ki: gay hϩ̃ | This is cow of kamla (kamla’s cow)
The suffix which shows the relation of somebody with something is called relative and ka, ke, ki: and ra, re, ri: are the suffixes to show the relation.
संबोधन कारक səmbodhən karək ↝ suffix he ! are!
Eg. 1) अरे भैया ! क्यो रो रहे हो ? əre bhaiya ! kyõ ro rəhe ho ? oh brother! why are you crying ? 2) हे गोपाल ! यहाँ आओ | he gopal ! yəha ao | he gopal ! come here.
अधिकारण कारक ədhikərəṇ karək ↝ suffix में mẽ, in पर pər on, over
Eg. 1) मदुमखी फूलों पर मँडरा रही है। mədhuməkhkhi: phutõ pər məndəra rəha: hϨ | Bee is flying over the flowers. कमरे में टी. बी. रखा है । kəmre mẽ ti: vi: rəkha hϨ | The T.V. has kept in the room.
Here, ‘phulõ pər’ over the flowers and ‘kəmre mẽ’ in the room shows the location. So locative or adhikərəṇ karək sentence.
Eg. 1) लड़का ləɽka - boy 2) माली mali: - gardener
| Case | Singular | Plural |
|---|---|---|
| 1. Nominative case | a) लड़का लड़के ने ləɽka, ləɽke ne boy, by boy, | b) लड़के, लड़को ने ləɽke, ləɽkõ ne boys, by boys |
| 2. Objective case | a) लड़के को ləɽke ko to the boy | b) लड़को को ləɽkõ ko to the boys |
| 3. Instrumental case | a) लड़के से, के द्वारा ləɽke se, ke dwara with the boy | b) लड़को से, के द्वारा ləɽkõ se, ke dwara with the boys |
| 4. Dative case | a) लड़के का, के लिये ləɽke ko, ke liye for the boy | b) लड़को को, के लिये ləɽkõ ko, ke liye for the boys |
| 5. Ablative case | a) लड़के से, ləɽke se from the boy | b) लड़को से ləɽkõ se from the boys |
| 6. Relative case | a) लड़के का, के, की ləɽke ka, ke, ki: of boy | b) लड़को का, के, की ləɽkõ ka, ke, ki: of boys |
| 7. Locative case | a) लड़के में, पर ləɽke mẽ, pər in the boy (some place) | b) लड़को में, पर ləɽkõ mẽ, pər in the boys(some place) |
| 8. Vocative case | a) ओ लड़के | o ləɽke ! | b) ओ लड़को | o ləɽkõ |
| Case | Singular | Plural |
|---|---|---|
| 1) Nominative case | a) माली, माली ने mali:, mali: ne gardener, by gardener | b) माली, मालियांे ने mali:, mali:yõ ne gardeners, by gardeners |
| 2) Objective case | a) माली को, mali: ko to the gardener | b) मालियांे को maliyõ ko to the gardeners |
| 3) Instrumental case | a) माली से, के द्वारा mali: se, ke dwara with the gardener | b) मालियांे से , के द्वारा maliyã se, ke dwara with the gardeners |
| 4) Dative case | a) माली को, के लिये mali: ko, ke liye for the gardener | b) मालियांे को, के लिये maliyõ ko, ke liye for the gardeners |
| 5) Ablative case | a) माली से mali: se from the gardener | b) मालियों से maliyõ se from the gardeners |
| 6) Relative case | a) माली का, के, की mali: ka, ke, ki: of gardener | b) मालियों का, के, की maliyõ ka, ke, ki: of gardeners |
| 7) Locative case | a) माली में, पर mali: mẽ, pər in the gardener | b) मालियों में, पर maliyõ mẽ,pər in the gardeners |
| 8) Vocative case | a) ओ माली o mali: | b) ओ मालियांे o maliyõ |
The basic numeral morphemes of Hindi are given below:
Fractional ↝ i) पाव ‘1/4’ pav – a quarter ii) आधा ‘1/2’ adha – a half iii) पौन ‘3/4’ pəu:n iv) सवा ‘1 and ¼’ səva v) ढेड ‘1 and ½’ deḍ vi) ढाई ‘1 and ½’ ḍhai: vii) साढ़े तीन ‘3 and ½’ saɽ̥he ti:n Cardinal ↝ 1) ऐक ek - one 2) दो do - two 3) तीन ti:n - three 4) चार car - four 5) पाँच pãc – five 6) छे/छह chẽ/chəh – six 7) साँत sãt – seven 8) आँठ ãṭh – eight 9) नौ nəu: - nine 10) दस dəs – ten 11) ग्यारह gyarəh – eleven 12) बारह barhə - twelve 13) तेरा tera – thirteen 14) चौदा cəuda – fourteen 15) पंधरा pəndhəra – fifteen 16) सोलाह solah – sixteen 17) सतरा sətra – seventeen 18) अठारहा əṭharha –eighteen 19) उन्नीस unni:s – nineteen 20) बीस bi:s - twenty 21) तीस ti:s – thirty 22) चालीस cali:s – forty 23) पचास pəcas – fifty 24) साँठ sãṭh – sixty 25) सत्तर səttər – seventy 26) अस्सी əssi: - eighty 27) नब्बे nəbbe – ninety 28) सौ səũ: - hundred 29) हजार həjar – thousand 30) लाख lakh – thousand 31) करोड kəroɽ - ten million
Like other Indo-Aryan languages Hindi language has a numeral system, in which ‘ten’ is the basic unit.
Ordinal ↝ i) प्रथम prəthəm – first ii) द्वितीया dwiti:ya – second iii) तृतीया truti:ya – third iv) चतुर्थी cəturthi: – fourth v) पंचमी pəncəmi: – fifth vi) छटवा chəṭva – sixth vii) सातवा satva – seventh viii) आठवा aṭəva – eight ix) नौवा nəu:va – nineth x) दसवा dəsva – tenth xi) ग्यारहवा gyarhəva – eleventh xii) बारहवा barhva – twelth xiii) तेरहवा terhəva – thirteen xiv) चौचाहवा cəudahəva – fourteenth xv) पंद्रहवा pəndrahəva – fifteenth xvi) सोलहवा soləhəva – sixteenth xvii) सत्रहवा sətrəhəva – seventeenth xviii) अठरहवा əṭhərəhva -eighteenth xix) उन्नीसवा unni:səva – nineteenth xx) बीसवा bi:sva – twenteeth xxi) तीसवा tisva – thirteenth xxii) चालीसवा cali:sva – fourteenth xxiii) पचासवा pəcasva – fifteenth xxiv) साठवा saṭhva – sixteenth xxv) सत्तरवा səttərva – seventieth xxvi) अस्सीहवा əssi:hva – eightieth xxvii) नब्बेवा nəbbeva – ninetieth xxviii) सौंहवा səu:hva – hundredth xxix) पारसौवा carsəuva – fourth hundredth xxx) हजारवा həjarhva – thousandth
Ordinals in Hindi – Adds / a/ in masculine i: in feminine.
Masculine Feminine 1) First पहला pəhla ̴ पहली pəhli 2) Second दुसरा dusra ̴ दुसरी dusri: 3) third तिसरा tisra ̴ तिसरी tisri: 4) fourth चौथा cəutha ̴ चौथी cəuthi: 5) fifth पाँचवा pancəva ̴ पाँचवी pancəvi: 6) sixth छटवा chəṭva ̴ छटवी chətvi: 7) seventh सातवा satva ̴ सातवी satvi: 8) eighth आठवा aṭhva ̴ आठवी aṭhvi: 9) nineth नौवा nəuva ̴ नौवी nəuvi: 10) tenth दसवा dəsva ̴ दसवी dəsvi: 11) twentieth बीसवा bisva ̴ बीसवी bisvi: 12) thirtieth तीसवा tisva: ̴ तीसवी tisvi: 13) fourtieth चालीसवा cali:sva ̴ चालीसवी cali:svi 14) fiftieth पचासवा pəcasva ̴ पचासवी pəcasvi: 15) hundredth सौवा səuva ̴ सौवी səuvi: 16) thousandth हजारवा həjarva ̴ हवारवी həjarvi:
Here, ‘th’ emphatic va ̴ vi: In the ordinal of Hindi, plural of Masculine, final ‘a’ convert to final long i: in the feminine.
Masculine Feminine 1) First प्रथम prəthəm प्रथम prəthəm 2) Second द्वितीया dwiti:ya द्वितीया dwiti:ya 3) Third तृतीया truti:ya तृतीया truti:ya 4) Fourth चतुर्थी cəturthi: चतुर्थी cəturthi: 5) Fifth पंचमी pəncəmi: पंचमी pəncəmi: 6) Sixth षष्टी ṣəṣṭhi: षष्टी ṣəṣṭhi: 7) Seventh सप्तमी səptəmi: सप्तमी səptəmi: 8) Eighth अष्टमी əṣṭəmi: अष्टमी əṣṭəmi: 9) Nineth नवमी nəvmi: नवमी nəvmi: 10) Tenth दशमी dəšəmi: दशमी dəšəmi:
Eg. 1. मैंने श्याम को पुस्तक दी | məine šyam ko pustək di: | sub+nom dir obj indirect verb case obj case obj I have given book to shyam. (The sentence has nominative case and objective case) 2. हमें नियमित रूप से विज्ञालय जाना चाहीये । həme niymit rup se vigyaləy jana cahi:ye | sub+1st adj (way) ablative indirect verb person (dir obj) case obj plural we have to go school regularly (The sentence has ablative case) 3. अशोक सोहन का बड़ा पुत्र पुस्तकालय में अच्ची पुस्तकें छाट रहा है । əsok sohən ka bəɽa putrə, pustəkaləy mẽ acchi: pustəke chãṭ rəha hϨ| sub dir genitive obj indir indirect location adj obj+plural obj case obj object case indir Ashok the elder son of sohan is selecting good books in the library. (The sentence has genitive case & locative case) 4. अर्जुन ने जनद्रथ को बण से मारा । ərjun ne jəydrəth ko baṇ se mara | sub nom dir objective indir instr case obj case obj case Arjun killed Jaydrath with an arrow. (The sentence has nominative case, objective case and instrumental case). 5. उसने पुत्र का प्रतिशोध लेने के लिये जयद्रथ को मारा । usne putrə ka prətisodh lene ke liye jəydrəth ko mara| sub+IIIrd indir genitive direct v.form dative indirect objective per. sing. + obj case obj case obj case nom. case He killed Jaydrath to take revenge of his son. (The sentence has nominative case, objective case, dative case and genitive case).
Pronoun ↝The word which come in place of noun is called pronoun or sərvnəm. The Hindi language has eight kinds of pronoun. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun.
1. Personal pronoun / पुरूषवाचक सर्वनाम puruṣvacək sərvnam 2. Demonstrative pronoun / निश्चयवाचक सर्वनाम niscəyvacək sərvnam 3. Reflexive/emphatic pronoun/ निजवाचक सर्वनाम nijvacək sərvnam 4. Interrogative / प्रश्नवाचक सर्वनाम prəšnəvacək sərvnam 5. Relative pronoun / संबंधवाचक सर्वनाम səmbəndh vacək sərvnam 6. Indefinite pronoun / अनिश्चयवाचक सर्वनाम ənišcəyvacək sərvnam 7. Possessive pronoun / स्वमीत्ववाचक सर्वनाम swami:twəvacək sərvnam 8. Reciprocal pronoun/ अन्योन्यवाचक सर्वनाम ənyonyə sərvnam vacək1. Personal pronoun ↝ पुरुषवाचक सर्वनाम puruṣvacək sərvnam
Personal pronoun replaces nouns which are same for masculine and feminine nouns. Personal pronouns are used for “the person speaking” “the person spoken” to and the person or thing spoken about. There are three personal pronouns.
A. First person उत्तम पुरुषवाचक Uttəm puruṣvacək ↝
Eg.
1) में किताब पढ़ता हूँ ।
mə̴y kitab pəɽəta hũ|
I am reading a book.
i) में mə̴y I
ii) हम həm we
2) हम मेले में जाएँगे।
həm mele me ̴jayẽge|
we will go to the exhibition.
3) में खुश हूँ।
mə̴y khuš hũ|
I am happy.
4) हम खुश है ।
həm khuš hϩ̃|
we are happy.
In the above sentences, məy̴, həm (I, we) are the first person singular and plural or uttəm puruṣ sərvnam.
B. Second person मध्यम पुरुषवाचक mədhyəm puruṣvacək ↝
Eg.
1) तू बहुत शरारती है।
tu: bəhut sərarti: hϩ̃ |
you are very naughty.
i) तू tu: - you
ii) तुम tum - you
iii) आप ap - you
2) तुम ठीक हो जाओगे।
tum thick ho jaoge |
you will be all right.
3) आप हँस कों रहे है ?
ap hə̴o kyon rəhe hϩ̃ |
why are you laughing?
4) आप ठीक कहते है।
ap thi:k kəhte hϩ̃ |
you are right (saying)
In the above sentences, tu: (you) sing. tum (you) plural, ap (you) plural are the words of second person pronoun or mədhyəm puruṣvacək.
C. Third person अन्य पुरूषवाचक ənyə puruṣvacək ↝ Eg. 1) वो/वह रोने लगा । vo/vəh rone ləga | He started crying. i) वह vəh - He/She ii) वे ve - They 2) वे खुश है। ve khuš hϩ̃ | They are happy. 3) वो वह रोने लगी । vo /vəh rone ləgi: | She started crying.
In the above sentences, vəh (He, She), singular, Ve (they) plural are the third person, pronoun. Not necessary to identify IIIrd person singualr number & plural number.
Exemption ↝ Eg. 1) चाचाजी आप कब आय ? cacaji, ap kəb aye ? Uncle, when did you come? 2) गांधीजी महान नेता थे। वे सबसे मिलते थे । gandhi:ji: məhan neta the | ve səbse mitte the | Gandhiji was a great leader. He had meet everybody.
In the above sentences, ‘ap’ (you) is the plural second person pronoun. Here it is used as a singular to give respect. ‘ve’ (they) is the plural third person pronoun used as a singular again to give respect. Both words uses for elderly persons who are elder by age, knowledge and designation to give respect them. ap is used for both singular and plural.
Singular Plural First person uəttəm puruṣvacək ↝ में məy̴ हम həm - we Second person mədhyəm puruṣvacək ↝ तू tu: - you तुम / आप tum - ap आप ap - you you you Third person ənyə puruṣvacək ↝ वो/वह vo/vəh वे ve - they he/she2. Demostrative pronoun निश्चयवाचक सर्वनाम - nišcəyvacək sərvnam ↝
Eg. 1) ये/यह किताब शायना की है। ye/yəh kitab šayna ki: hϨ | This book belongs to shayna. 2) ये/यह तो इज्जत का सवाल है। yəh to ijjət ka səwai hϨ | This is the question of prestige. 3) वो/वह क्या है। vo/vəh kya hϨ? What is that ? 4) वे/सब खेल रहे है। ve səb khel rəhe hϨ | They all are playing.
In the above sentences, yəh, vəh, and ve (this, that, they) are the demonstrative pronoun or nišcəyvacək sərvnam.
3. Reflexive pronoun निजवाचक सर्वनाम nijvacək sərvnam ↝Eg. 1) में आपना काम आप ही कर रहा हूँ। məy̴ apna kam ap hi kər rəha hũ | I am doing my work myself. 2) वो/वह आपने आप चला आयेगा। vo/vəh əpne ap cəla ayega | He will come himself.
In the above sentences, apna, əpne, ap when come with the noun or pronoun in the sentences, it is called the reflexive pronoun.
Reflexive pronoun (B) emphative pronoun. Eg. 1) ये किताब मैंने खुद लिखी | ye kitab məine khud likhi: | I have written this book myself. 2) मैंने उसे खुद देखा था | məine use khud dekha tha | I have seen him myself. 3) तुमने मुझे खुद बताया था | tumne mujhe khud bətaya tha | you / yourself told me.
The pronoun mentioned here are called emphatic pronoun. ‘khud’ – myself, yourself are the emphatic pronoun: They are used for the sake fo emphasis or stress.
4. Interrogative & Question pronoun प्रश्नावाचक सर्वनाम prəšnəvacək sərvnam ↝Eg. 1) तुम क्या लिख रहे हो ? tum kya likh rəhe ho ? what are you writing? 2) वहाँ कौन जायेगा। vəhə kəun jayega | who will go there. 3) में यह (ये ye) क्या कर बैठा | məy̴ yəh kya kər bəyṭha ? what I have done?
Here, ‘kya’ – what and ‘kəun’ – ‘who’ are the interrogative pronoun. Other Interrogative pronouns are -
1) किसे kise - who 2) कैसा kəisa - which 3) किसका kiska - whose5. Relative pronoun संबंधवाचक सर्वनाम səmbəndhvacək sərvnam ↝
Eg. 1) जैसा करोगे वैसा भरोगे | jəisa kəroge vəisa bhəroge | tit for tat 2) जो जीतेगा उसे इनाम मिलेगा | jo jitega, use inam milega | whoever wins will get the prize. 3) जो मन लगाकर पढ़ता है, वह अवश्य पास होता है | jo mən ləgakər pəɽəta hϩ̃, vəh əvəšyə pas hota hϨ | whoever studies hard, will surely pass.
In the above sentences, jo-use, jo-vəh, jəisa-vəisa etc. are the relative pronoun. other Eg. jo-so, jiski: - uski:
6. Indefinite pronoun अनिश्चयवाचक सर्वनाम əniscəyvacək sərvnam ↝Eg. 1) कोई आ रहा है | koi: a rəha hϨ | somebody is coming. 2) दूध में कुछ पडा हुआ है | dudh mẽ kuch pəɽa hua hϨ | something is in the milk.
In the above sentences, ‘koi:’ somebody, ‘kucch’ something are the indefinite pronoun.
7. Possessive pronoun स्वामीत्ववाचक सर्वनाम swami:təwəvacək sərvnam ↝Eg. 1) यह किताब मेरी है | yəh kitab meri: hϨ | This book is mine. 2) यह घर हमारा है | yəh ghər həmara hϨ | This house is ours.
In the above sentences, the words meri: ‘Mine’ and həmara ‘ours’ are used for yəh kitab ‘This book’ and yəh ghər ‘This house’. So it is a pronoun (word used instead of a noun) and because it shows possession, it is called possessive pronoun. It is formed from the pronoun ‘məi’ (first person singular) and ‘həm’ (first Person plural).
A list of possessive pronouns formed from personal pronoun ↝ Person Singular M/F Plural M/F 1st person मेरा/मेरी mera/meri: ‘mine’ हमारा/हमारी həmara / həmari: ‘Ours’ IInd person तेरा/तेरी tera/teri: ‘your’ तुम्हारा/तुम्हारी tumhara/tumhari: आपका/आपकी apka/apki: ‘Yours’ IIIrd person उसका/उसकी uska/uski: ‘his/her’ उनका/उनकी unka/unki: ‘Theirs’ इसका/इसकी iska/iski: ‘his/her’ इनका/इनकी inka/inki: ‘his/her’8.Reciprocal pronoun अन्योन्य सर्वनाम ənyonyə sərvnam ↝
The reciprocal pronoun of Hindi: ekdusre एकदुसरे i.e. one another/each other. Eg. 1) हम एकदुसरे को सालों से जानते है | həm ekdusre ko səlõ se jənte hϨ | We have known each other for years. Here the pronoun ‘ekdusre’ is the direct obj. in the sentence and having objective case. 2) वे महिनों से एकदुसरे को पत्र लिखते रहे हे | ve məhinõ se ekdusre ko pətrə likhte rəhe hϨ | They have been writing letters to each otehr for months. Here, the pronoun ‘ekdusre’ is the indirect obj. in the sentence and having objective case. 3. ऐसा लगाता हे वे एकदुसरे के लिये बने हे | əisa ləgta hϨ ve ekdusre ke liye bəne hϨ | It seems that they have been made for each other. Here, the pronoun ‘ekdusre’ has dative case. 4. हमे एकदुसरे के विचारों का सम्मान करना चाहीये | həme ekdusrẽ ke vicarõ ka sənman kərna cahiye | We have to respect to eachother’s views. Here, the pronoun ‘ekdusre’ has genitive case. 5. हमे एकदुसरे पर भरोसा रखना चाहीहे | nəme ekdusre pər bhərosa rəkhna cahiye | We should keep faith on eachother.
Here, the pronoun ‘ekdusre’ has locative case.
The forms of pronouns with case marker.
Eg. 1) मैं məi – 1st person, singular हम həm – 1st person, plural
| Case | Singular | Plural |
|---|---|---|
| 1) Nominative case | a) मैं, मैंने məi, məine I ,by me | b) हम, हमने həm, həmne we by us |
| 2) Objective case | a) मुझे, मुझको mujhe, mujhko to me | b) हमें, हमको həmẽ, həmko to us |
| 3) Instrumental case | a) मुझसे, मेरे द्वारा mujh se, mere dwara with me |
b) हमसे, हमारे द्वारा həmse, həmare dwara with us |
| 4) Dative case | a) मुझे, मुझको, मेरे लिये mujhe, mujhko, mere liye to me, for me | b) हमे, हमको, हमारे लिये həme,həmko, həmare liye to us,for us |
| 5) Ablative case | a) मुझ से mujh se from me | b) हमसे həmse from us |
| 6) Possessive/ Genitive case | a) मेरा, मेरी, मेरे mera, meri:, mere of mine | b) हमारा, हमारी, हमारे həmara, həmari:, həmare of ours |
| 7) Locative case | a) मुझमें, मुझ पर mujh mẽ, mujh pər in me, on me | b) हममें, हम पर həmmẽ,həm pər in us, on us. |
Eg. 2) तू tu: - ‘you’ - IInd person singular तुम tum - ‘you’ - IInd person plural
| Case | Singular | Plural |
|---|---|---|
| 1) Nominative case | a) तू, तुने tu:, tu:ne you, by you | b) तुम, तुमने tum, tumne you, by you |
| 2) Objective case | a) तुझे, तुझको tujhe tujko to you | b) तुम्हे, तुमको tumhe, tumko to you |
| 3) Instrumental case | a) तुझसे, तेरे द्वारा tujhse,tujhse, tera dwara with you | b) तुम्हारे से, तुम्हारे द्वारा tumhare se, tumhare dwara with you |
| 4) Dative case | a) तुझे, तुझको, तेरे लिये tujhe, tujhko, tere liye for you | b) तुम्हे, तुमको, तुम्हारे लिये tumhe, tumko, tumare liye for you |
| 5) Ablative case | a) तुझसे tujhse from you | b) तुमसे tumse from you |
| 6) Possessive/Genitive case | a) तेरा, तेरी, तेरे tera, teri:, tere of you | b) तुम्हारा, तुह्हारी, तुम्हारे tumhara, tumhari:, tumhare of you |
| 7) Locative case | a) तुझमें, तुझ पर tujhme, tujh pər in you, on you | b) तुम मैं, तुम पर tum mẽ, tum pər in you, on you. |
Verb ↝ Verb or ÊGòªÉÉ ‘kriya’ is a saying word or an action word. It says something about a person, place or thing.
Kinds of verb ↝ The Hindi: verb has two kinds- 1. Transitive verb ºÉEò¨ÉÇEò ÊGòªÉÉ səkərmək kriya 2. Intransitive verb +Eò¨ÉÇEò ÊGòªÉÉ əkərmək kriya1. Transitive verb सकर्मक क्रिया səkərmək kriya ↝
The verbs which takes object is called Transitive verb. Eg. 1) रमेश मिराई खाता है | rəmes miṭhəi: khata hϨ | Ramesh eats sweet. 2) लड़का गेंद फेंकता है | ləϨka gend phekta hϨ | A boy throws a ball.
In the above sentences, the word Mithai: ‘sweet’ and gend ‘ball’ are the objects which gives the complete sense to the sentence and verb. So the verb is said to be transitive verb.
2. Intransitive verb अकर्मक क्रिया əkərmək kriya ↝When the verb don’t need the help of any other word to make complete sense in the sentence. The verb is called Intransitive verb. Verbs, which do not require an object is called intransitive verbs.
Eg. 1) कुत्ता भौंकता है | kutta bhə̴ukəta hϨ | The dog barks. 2) नौकर जल्दी आयेगा | nəukər jəldi: ayega | The servant returns soon. 3) वह घर मैं घुस आया | vəh ghər mẽ ghus aya | He entered in the house. Verbs, which do not require an object is called intransitive verbs.
According to use, verb can be differentiated into five types in Hindi: ↝
1. Simple verbs सामान्य क्रिया səmanyə kriya ↝
Where the sentence has only one verb.
Eg. 1) आप आए |
ap aye |
He came.
2) वह नहाया |
vəh nəhaya |
He took both.
2. Compound verb संयुक्त/सहायक क्रिया helping verb ↝
Compound verb stems are formed from two or more verbal bases as well as nominal base followed by verbal stem.
Eg. 1) सविता महाभारत पढ़ने लगी | səvita məhabhart pəɽne ləgi: | Savita started reading the Mahabharat. 2) कल मैं नही आ सका | kəl mϩ̃ nəhi: a səka | Yesterday I did not come.
In the sentence (1) ‘pəɽne ləgi:’ started reading is the verb, Here, pəϨne is the main verb and ‘ləgi:’ is the helping verb.
In the second sentence ‘a səka’is the verb. ‘ana’ is main verb and ‘səka’ is helping verb.
Compound verb stems are formed from two or more verbal bases as well as normal base followed by verbal stem.
Some other Eg. of helping verbs (subsidiary verbs) ↝ Eg. 1) मैं काम कर चुकी | məĩ kam kər cuki: | I have finished work.
Here, kərna is the main verb and cuki: is the helping verb. Kər cuki: -- completion (of work) shows indicative mood.
2) मैं काम कर सकती हूँ | məĩ kam kər səkti: hũ | I can do the work.
Here səkti is main verb and hũ is helping (auxiliary) verb. səkti: hũ - shows ability so it is in potential mood.
3) मैं काम करने लगी | meĩ kam kərne ləgi: | I started working.
Here, kərne is main verb and ləgi: is helping verb.
4) मैं काम करना चाहती हूँ | məĩ kam kərna cahti: hũ | I want to do work.
Here, kərna is main verb, cahti: is helping verb and hũ is an auxiliary verb. kərna cahti hũ -wish shows hortative mood.
5) मुझे काम करना चाहिये | mujhe kam kərna cahiye | I should do work.
Here kərna is main verb and cahiye is a helping verb kərna cahiye –whould shows subjective mood.
6) मुझे काम करने दिया | mujhe kam kərne diya | I had allowed to do work.
Here kərne is main verb and diya is helping verb. kərne diya – permission.
7) मुझे काम करना पड़ा | mujhe kam kərna pəɽa | I had to do work.
Here kərna main verb and pəɽa is helping verb. kərna pəɽa – necessity.
8) मुझे काम करती रहती हूँ | məĩ kam kərti: rəhti: hũ | I used to do work.
Here kərna is main verb, rəhti: is a helping verb and hũis an auxiliary verb. kərte rəhna - practice.
9) तुम मेरे साथ चलो | tum mere sath cəlo | you come with me.
Here cəlo is only verb (main) cəlo - order so it is imperative mood.
10) क्या मैं अन्दर आऊँ ? kya məĩ əndər aũ: ? may I come in ?
Here, aũ: is the only main verb. aũ: ;- request, shows imperative mood.
Auxiliary verbs of Hindi: ↝ होना hona ‘to be’ ↝The auxiliary verb hona help the aspects verb to form various tenses and aspects can function as subsidiary verb and also as main verb.
Eg. 1) मैं जाता हूँ | məĩ jata hũ | I go 2) वह जाती है | vəh jati: hϨ | She goes 3) मै जा रहा हूँ | məĩ ja rəha hũ | I am going 4) वे जा रहे है | ve ja rəhe hϨ | They are going 5) मैं जाता रहता हूँ | məi jata rəhta hũ | I used to go (Present – habitual) 6) मैं जाता था | məĩ jata tha | I was going (Past) 7) वह जाती थी | vəh jati: thi: she was going (Past) 8) मैं जाता रहूँगा | məĩ jata rəhũga | I shall have been going. (fugure - habitual) 9) वह जाता रहेगा | vəh jata rəhega | He will have been going (future - habitual)3. नामधातु क्रिया nəmdhatu kriya ↝ verbs which can made by nouns, pronouns and adjectives.
Eg. 1) हथियाना həthiyana 2) लजाना ləjana 3) शर्माना šərmana 4) चिकनाना cikhana 5) अपनाना əpnana 6) झुटलाना jhuṭhəlana4. प्रेरणार्थक क्रिया (Casative verb) prernarthək kriya ↝
Those verbs signify causation of the action, denoted by transitive or intransitive verbs, are called causative verbs.
1) बच्चे ने खाना खाया | bəcce ne khana khaya | A child has eaten the meal. 2) माँ ने बच्चे को खाना खिलाया | mã ne bəcce ko khana khilaya | Mother made the child to eat meal. 3) माँ ने बैटी बच्चे को खाना खिलवाया | mã ne beti: se bəcche ko khana khilwaya | Mother made the child to eat meal by her daughter.
Here, khaya, khilaya and khilwaya are the declensions of the main verb ‘khana’ to eat (not the obj. ‘khana’ the meal) (kha – root verb).
Those verbs signify causation of the action, denoted by transitive or intransitive verbs, are called causative verbs.
Other prernarthək kriya ↝ (Causative verbs)| Main verb | First prernarthək kriya | Second prernarthək kriya |
|---|---|---|
| 1. हँसना həs̴na to laugh | हँसाना həs̴ana to make laugh | हँसवाना həswana to make laughby somebody |
| 2. काटना kaṭna to cut | कटाना kəṭana to make cut | कटवाना kəṭwana to make cut by somebody |
| 3. सीखना si:khəna to learn | सिखाना sikhna to make learn | सिखवाना sikhwana to make learn by somebody |
| 4. लूटना lu:ṭna to lut/to rob | लुटाना luṭna to make rob | लुटवाना luṭwana to make rob by somebody |
| 5. बैठना bəiṭhəna to sit | बिठाना biṭhana to make sit | बिठवाना biṭhwana to make sit by somebody |
| 6. बोलना bolna to talk | बुलाना bulana to make talk | बुलवाना bulwana to make talk by somebody. |
Main verb changes while converting into first and second prernarthək kriya, by -
1. The first vowel changes - 1) a to ə 2) i: to i 3) u: to u 4) e, Ϩ to i 5) o to u
The last vowel of verb form of main verb (root) convert ə to a in the first prernarthək kriya.
5. पूर्वकालिक क्रिया purvkalik kriya ↝If one verb in the sentence the other verb taking place is called purvkalik verb. It has two verb in the sentence. One is main verb and another is purvkalik verb.
Eg. 1) मैं अभी सोकर उठा हूँ | məĩ əbhi: sokər uṭha hũ | I got up now after sleeping. 2) बच्चा इध पीते ही सो गया | bəccha du:dh pite hi: so gəya | The child slept (just) after drinking milk. 3) राम चित्र देखकर हँसने लगा | ram citrə dekhkər hasne ləga | Ram started laughing by seeing the poster.
Some verbs does not mean anything itself, it needs some words to make it sense in the sentence.
for Eg. 1) थे the गांधीजी राष्ट्रपिता थे | Gandhiji raṣṭrəpita the | Gandhiji is the father of the nation. 2) हो ho तुम चलाख हो | tum cəlakh ho | You are clever. 3) बना लिया bəna liya मैंनॆ श्याम को मित्र बना लिया | məine šyam ko mitrə bəna liya | I made shyam as my friend.
Finite and Non-finite verb ↝ The place of verb in a sentence ↝ On the basis of the finiteness the verb construction in Hindi: makes a two way distinction, namely :
1. Finite and 2. Non-finite.
A verb which is limited in number and person to the subject is called a finite verb.
A verb which is not limited in number and person to the subject in called in Infinite or Non-finite verb.
The finite verb closes a sentence construction whereas, a non-finite verb can occur as a non-final member of a compound verb.
The structure of a finite verb followed by mood, tense and aspect markers. The finite verb maintains a concord with the subject or the object in the sentence construction and varies accroding to their person, number and gender.
All the verbs made by root verbs either having transitive or intransitive verbs in the sentence are called finite verbs. It may have or may not have an auxiliary verb with it in the sentence.
All the compound verbs made by two root verbs are called non-finite verbs. It may have or may not have an auxiliary verb with it in the sentence.
Root Verb 1. कर kər करना kərna to do 2. बोल bol बोलना bolna to speak/to talk 3. मार mar मारना marna to beat 4. पी pi: पिना pina to drink 5. खा kha खाना khana to eat 6. ले le लेना lena to take 7. दे de देना dena to give 8. धो dho धोना dhona to wash 9. पकड़ pəkɽ पकड़ना pəkɽna to catch 10. दिखा dikha दिखना dikhana to show 11. बेच bec बेचना becna to sell 12. सिख sikh सिखना sikhna to learn 13. फेख phek̴ फेखना phek̴na to throw 14. ला la लाना lana to bring 15. गा ga गाना gana to sing 16. चोड़ choɽ चोड़ना choɽna to leave 17. झगड़ jhəgɽ झगड़ना jhəgɽna to quarrel 18. रख rəkh रखना rəkhna to keep 19. भेज bhej भेजना bhejna to send 20. जा ja जाना jana to go
Root Verb 1. भाग bhag भागना bhəgha to run 2. निकल nikəl निकलना nikəlna to start 3. मर mər मरना mərna to die 4. रह rəh रहना rəhna to live/to stay 5. डर ɽər डरना ɽərna to fear 6. भूल bhu:l भूलना bhulna to forget 7. सो so सोना sona to sleep 8. मिल mil मिलना milna to see/to meet 9. झाड़ jhaɽ झाड़ना jhaɽna to broom 10. टपक ṭəpk टपकना ṭəpkna to leak 11. लज ləj लजना ləjana to shy 12. हो ho होना hona to be 13. बढ़ bəɽ बढ़ना bəɽna to raise 14. खेल khel खेलना khelna to play 15. बैठ bəiṭh बैठना bəithna to sit 16. हँस hə̴s हँसना hə̴sna to laugh 17. उग ug उगना ugna to rise 18. जी ji: जीना jina to live 19. दौड़ dəuɽ̥ दौड़ना dəuɽ̥na to run 20. रो ro रोना rona to cry 21. ठहर ṭhəhər ठहरना thəhərna to stop 22. चमक cəmək चमकना cəməkna to shine 23. डोल dol डोलना dolna to swing 24. छट ghəṭ छटना ghəṭna to be happened 25. फाँद phãd फाँदना phãdna to jumb 26. जाग jag जागना jagna to awake 27. बरस bərs बरसना bərəsna to rain 28. उछल uchəl उछलना uchəlna to jump 29. कूद ku:d कूदना kudna to jump 30. काट kaṭ काटना kaṭna to cut/to bite 31. थक thək थकना thəkna to tired 32. खाँस khãs खाँसना khãsna to cough
Other Eg. of nonfinite verbs (compound verbs are here – go).
Eg.
1) लकड़दारा लकड़ियाँ बेच देता था |
ləkəɽhara ləkɽiyã bec deta tha |
A woodcutter had sold the woods.
2) लकड़हारा जंगल में लकड़ियाँ काट रहा था |
ləkɽhara jəŋgəl mẽ ləkɽiyã kaṭ rəha tha |
A woodcutter was cutting woods in the forest.
3) उसने आलू उबलने के लिये रख दिये |
usne alu: ubəlna ke liye rəkh diye |
He kept (had given keep) potatoes for boiling.
Here in the first sentence, the verb bec is from becna, ‘to sell’ deta from dena ‘to give’ and that is the past of auxiliary.
The 2nd sentence has verb kat from kaṭna ‘to cut’, rəha that is past of continuous auxiliary.
The 3rd sentence has verb rəkh from rəkhna ‘to keep’ and diye from dena ‘to give’.
So these are the compound verbs. And are infinite in numeracy mey are called non-finite verb.
The compound verb should have more than one verb other than auxiliary verb.
In Hindi langauge, voice or vacyə are of three tyeps -
1. Active voice कर्तवाच्य kərtruvacyə कर्तरि प्रयोग kərtri prəyog 2. Passive voice कर्मवाच्य kərm vacyə कर्मणि प्रयोग kərmṇi prəyog 3. Impersonal voice भाववाच्य bhav vacyə भावे प्रयोग bhaye prəyog1. Active voice कर्तवाच्य kərtru vacyə :
Eg. 1) शायना खेलती है | šayna khelti: hϩ̃ | Shayna (the name) plays. 2) मै पुस्तक पढ़ता हूँ | məi pustək pəɽəta hũ | 3) हम खेत में काम कर रहे है | həm khet mẽ kam kər rəhe hϩ̃ | We are working in the farm.
In the above sentences, šayna (the name) ‘həi’ I, ‘həm’ we, are the subject of the sentence, which is the direct form. ‘khetti hϨ’ plays, ‘pəɽhəta hũ ‘read’, ‘kər rəhe hϩ̃’ ‘are doing’ (cont. present tense) are the verb, includes both transitive and intransitive in all the tenses are used in the active construction are called kərtru vacyə or Acive voice. Here, the subject is directly related to verb.
प्रयोग prəyog ↝A) कर्तरि प्रयोग kərtri prəyog ↝ Eg. 1) लड़का पत्र लिखता है | ləɽka pətrə likhta hϨ | boy writes a letter. 2) लड़किया पत्र लिखती है | ləɽkiyã pətrə likhti: hϨ | Girls write letter. 3) घोड़ा दौड़ता है | ghoɽa dəuɽta hϨ | The horse runs.
In the above sentences, the gender & number and person the verb is changes or correlate with the gender & number of the subject. Here -
a) (n) s ↝ ləɽka – sing, masculine, IIIrd person. (v) likhta hϨ - sing, masculine, IIIrd person. (n) ↝ sub-ləɽkiyã ↝ Plural, feminine, IIIrd person. (v) likhti hϨ ↝ plurəl, feminine, IIIrd person. b) (n) sub ↝ ghoϨa ↝ sing, masculine, IIIrd person (v) ↝ dəuɽta hϨ ↝ sing, masculine, IIIrd person (n) ↝ ghoɽe ↝ plural, masculine, IIIrd person (v) ↝ dəuɽte hϨ ↝ plural, masc. IIIrd person2. Passive voice कर्मवाच्य kərmvacyə :
Eg. 1) छार्ता द्वारा नाटक प्रस्तुत किया जा रहा है | chatro doara naṭək prəstut kiya ja rəha hϨ | The drama is played by the students. 2) बच्चो के द्वारा निबंध पढ़े गये | bəccho ke dwara nibəndh pədhe gəye | An essay has read by children. 3) पुस्तक मेरे द्वारा पढ़ी गई | pustək mere dwara pəɽi: gəi: | The book has readen by me.
In the above passive, construction, the object naṭək ‘drama’ nibəndh’ eassay, and pustək ‘book’ is in the direct form and the subject chatro ‘students’ bəccho ‘children, mere (ob. form) ‘me’ is in the agentive, or instrumental case. The verb is directly related with the object. The passive construction is possible only when the verb is translative.
A) कर्मणि प्रयोग kərmṇi prəyog ↝Eg. 1) उपन्यास मेरे द्वारा पढ़ा गया | upnyas mere dwara pəɽa gəya | The novel has read by me. 2) लड़कियों ने पुस्तकें लिखी है | ləɽkiyõ ne pustəkẽ likhi: hϨ | The book has written by girls.
In the above sentences, the gender, number and person markers of the verb changes with the gender, number and person fo the object is called kərməṇi: prəyog.
The person, number, gender marker change according to the object.
3. Impersonal voice भाववाच्य bhavvacyə ↝The verb in this category do not agree with any word in the sentences, but remain in IIIrd person, mascular/singular forms.
Eg. 1) रमा से हँसा नही जाता | rəma se həsa nəhi: jata | It does not laugh by Rama. 2) गौरव से सोया नही जाता | gəurəv se soya nəhi: jata | It doesnot sleep by Gaurav.
The bhavvacyə or Impersonal voice includes the negative verbs in it. The verb does not go with subject or object. The voice is called impesonal voice.
In the impersonal vioce the verb is always in the 3rd person singular masculine form and the sujbect, if mentioned, has “se” “ से ” . Only intransitive verbs occur in impersonal construction and verb is always in the neutral construction.
A) भावे प्रयोग bhave prəyog ↝Eg. 1) अनिता ने बेल को सींचा | ənita ne bel ko sĩnca | Anita shower the plant. 2) लड़कों ने पत्रो को देखा है | ləɽkõ ne pətrõ ko dekha hϨ | boys have seen the letters.
In the above sentences, the gender, number and person of the verb does’nt go with thegender, number, and person of the subject andobject is called bhave prəyog.
ənita – sub – n ↝ sing, feminine, IIIrd person. bel - obj. – n ↝ sing, feminine, IIIrd person. sinca – verb – sing, masculine, IIIrd person. he – nominative case ko – objective case təɽko – sub – n ↝ plural, masc., IIIrd person. pətro – obj. – n ↝ plural, masc, IIIrd person. dekha hϨ - verb ↝ sing, mascu, IIIrd perosn.
3) अब उससे चला नही जाता है |
əb usse cəla nəhi: jata hϨ |
He cuold not walk now.
usse – sub – pronoun ↝ sing, masc. IIIrd person.
cəla nəhi: jata hϨ ↝ verb ↝ sing, masc. IIIrd person.
The verb of negotiation of negative verbs are also included in bhave prəyog.
Eg. Active voice Passive voice 1.श्यामा उपन्यास लिखती है | श्याम से उपन्यास लिखा जाता है | šyama upnyas likhti: hϨ | šyama se upnyas likha jata hϨ | Shyama writes the nowel. Nowel was written by Shyama. श्यामा उपन्यास लिखेगी | श्यामा से (के द्वारा) उपन्यास लिखा जायेगा | šyama upnyas likhegi: | šyama se (ke dwara) upnyas likha jayega | Shyama will write the nowel. The nowel will have written by the Shyama.2. There are some rules for changing the Active voice to impersonal voice.
1.The verb should be sing. and IIIrd person in the impersonal voice 2.The subject should have instrumental case with it in the impersonal voice. 3.Change the verb in the past indefinite and add the ‘jana’ verb with that. 4.Negotiation or negative verb should add as needed.
Eg. Active voice Impersonal voice 1. बच्चो नही दौड़ते | बच्चो से दौड़ा नही जाता | bəcche nəhi: dəuɽte | bəcchoɔ se dəuɽa nəhĩ: jata | children do not run. It does not run by the children. 2. पक्षी नही उड़ते | पक्षियों से उड़ा नही जाता | pəkši: nəhi: uɽte | pəkšiyõ se uɽa nəhi: jata | The birds donot fly. It does not flly by the birds.
The forms of a verb indicating the time of the action are called ‘Tense’. The form of verb which express the time of work done, is called tense, kal.
1. Past tense भूतकाल bhu:tkal 2. Present tense वर्तमान काल vərtman kal 3. Future tense भविष्यत काल bhəviṣyət kal1. Past tense भूतकाल bhu:tkal ↝ Aspect of verbs : Bhutkal has six types -
1. Past indefinite सामान्य भूतकाल samanyə bhu:tkal 2. Present perfect आसन्न भूतकाल asənnə bhu:tkal 3. Past Imperfect (Continunous) अपूर्ण भूतकाल əpu:rṇ bhu:tkal 4. Past perfect पूर्ण भूतकाल pu:ṛn bhu:tkal 5. Past doubtful संदिग्ध भूतकाल səndigdha bhu:tkal 6. Past conditional हेतुहेतुमद् भूतकाल hetuhetuməd bhu:tkal1. Past indefinite सामान्य भूतकाल samanyə bhu:tkal
Eg. 1) बच्चा गया | bəcca gəya | Child went. 2) श्यामा ने पत्र लिखी | šyama ne pətrə likhə: | Shyama wrote letter.
The form of samanyə bhu:tkal verb does not express the current time but it is in past tense form. The verb ends with the final vowel ‘a’ & ‘i:’ and ‘e’ denoting mascu. sing. feminine sing. and IIIrd person, plural.
2. Present perfect आसन्न भूतकाल asənnə bhu:tkal ↝Eg. 1) कमल गया है | kəməl gəya hϨ | Kamal has gone. 2) श्यामा ने पत्र लिखी है | šyama ne pətrə likhi: hϨ | Shyama has written a letter.
The form of asənnə bhu:tkal verb expresses the action verb took place some time before the present.
Here verb ends with – final vowel ‘a’ and ‘i’ to main verb + hϨ ‘to be’.
gəya ↝ main verb – sing. mans. IIIrd person. likha ↝ main verb – sing. feminine, IIIrd person.3. Imperfect (Continuous) अपूर्ण भूतकाल əpurṇbhu:t kal:
Eg. 1) बच्चा आ रहा था | bəccha a rəha tha | Child was coming. 2) श्यामा पत्र लिख रही थी | šyama pətrə likh rəhi thi | Shyama was writting a letter.
The form of əpurṇ bhu:tkal express the action verb in past tense but does not complete.
Here, main verb adds ‘rəha tha’ or ‘rəhi: thi:’ sing. and plural form of helping verb. tha, thi, the – to be in past form.
1) मै फल खाता था |
mϩ̃ phəl khata tha |
I was eating the fruits.
2) हम फल खाते थे |
həm phəl khate the |
We were eating the fruits.
The above verb is the imprefect (Continuous) Here, main verb ends with the final vowel ‘a’, ‘i’ and ‘e’ sing. plural and 1st person, second person and IIIrd person verb.
4. Past perfect पूर्ण भूतकाल purṇ bhut:kal ↝Eg. 1) श्यामा ने पत्र लिखी थी | šyama ne pətrə likhi thi: | Shyama had written a letter. 2) बच्चा आया था | bəccha aya tha | The child had come.
The purṇ bhu:tkal verb, action has taken place more time before the present.
Here, main verb ends with final vowel ‘a’, i: and ‘e’, + tha, thi: and the to be in past tense.
aya ↝ main verb – sing. masc. IIIrd person. likhi ↝ main verb – sing. fem. IIIrd person. likhe ↝ main verb – plu. masc. IIIrd person.5. Past doubtful संदिग्ध भूतकाल (Səndigdhə bhu:tkal ↝ The verb is in past but the action is doubtful.
Eg. 1) बच्चा आया होगा | bəccha aya hoga | The child might have come. 2) श्यामा ने पत्र लिखी होगी | šhyama ne pətrə likhi: hogi: | Shyama might have written a letter.
Here, the main verb ends with final vowel ‘a’ sing. masc. ‘i:’ sing, feminine, IIIrd person, ‘e’ plural, masc. IIIrd person + hoga, hogi:, and hogẽ to be.
6. Past conditional हेतुहेतुमद भूतकाल hetunehuməd bhu:tkal ↝The form of action verb depends on the other form of verb in the past tense is called hetuhetuməd bhu:tkal.
Eg. 1) यदि वर्ष होती हो फसल अच्वी होती | yədi vərṣa hoti: to phəsəl əcchi: hoti: | If the rain falls then the crop would be good. 2) यदि श्यामा ने पत्र लिखा होता तो मै अवश्य आती | yedi šyama ne pətrə likha hota to məi əvšyəati: | If shyama writes letter then I would come.
In these sentences, यदि.....तो ‘if ... then’ is used. The main verb ends with final vowel ‘a’ sing. masc. IIIrd person, ‘i:’ sing. fem. IIIrd person ‘e’ plural, masc. IIIrd person.
The first sentence has the verb changes in gender, number and person acccroding to the gender, numer and person of object.
2. Present tense वर्तमान काल vərtman kal ↝ Vərtman kal (Aspects of verbs) has three types -1. Present indefinite सामान्य वर्तमानकाल samanyə vərtman kal 2. Present continuous अपूर्ण वर्तमानकाल apurṇ vərtman kal 3. Present doubtful संदिग्ध वर्तमानकाल səndigdhə vərtman kal1. Present indefinite सामान्य वर्तमानकाल samanyə vərtman kal
Eg. 1) बच्चा रोता है | bəccha rota hϨ | The child cries. 2) श्यामा पत्र लिखती है | šyama pətrə likhti: hϨ | Shyama writes a letter. 3) हम फल खाते है | həm phəl khate hϨ | We eat the fruits.
The form of samanyə vərtman kal or present indefinite express the action verb istaking place now. Here main verb ends with final cv – ta, ti, and te + hϨ i.e. ta – sing. masc. IIIrd Person. ti- sing, femi, IIIrd person, te – plural, masc. IIIrd person, and hϨ ‘to be’.
2. Present continuous अपूर्ण वर्तमानकाल əpurṇ vərtman kal ↝Eg. 1) बच्चा रो रहा है | bəccha ro rəha hϨ | A child is crying. 2) श्यामा पत्र लिखा रही है | šyama pətrə likh rəhi: hϨ | shyam is writing a letter. 3) वे फल खा रहे है | ve phəl kha rəhe hϨ | They are eating fruits.
The form of əpurṇ vərtman kal verb express the present verb but it does not completed. Here main verb adds ‘rəha’ hϨ or rəhi: he and rəhe hϨ i.e. sing. & plural froms of helping verb hϨ - to be in present form.
3. Present doubtful संदिग्ध वर्तमान काल səndigdhə vərtəmankal ↝Eg. 1) अब बच्चा रोता होगा | əb bəccha rota hoga | Now a child may cries. 2) श्यामा इस समय पत्र लिखती होगी | šyama is səməy pətrə likhti: hogi: | Shyam may write a letter this time. 3) वे अभी आते होंगे | ve əbhi: ate honge | They may come now.
Here the main verb ends with ta, ti:, and te + hoga, hogi:, & hõge - the forms of ‘to be’.
3. Future tense भविष्यत काल bhəviṣyət kal ↝ It (Aspects of verbs) has two types-1. Future indefinite सामान्य भविष्यत काल samanyə bhəviṣyət 2. Future doubtful संभाव्य भविष्यत काल səmbhavyə bhəviṣyət1. Future indefinite सामान्य भविष्यत samanyə bhəviṣyət ↝
Eg. 1) श्यामा पत्र लिखेगी | šyama pətrə likhegi: | 2) हम धूमने जाएँगे | həm ghu:mne jayenge | We will go out. 3) आज मै तुम्हारे घर आऊँगा | aj məi tumhare ghər au:nga | Today I will come to your house.
The final CV of the verb should be ‘ti:’ sing, fem. IIIrd person. ‘ga’ sing. masc. IIIrd person, ‘ge’ plural, masc. IIIrd person.
2. Future doubtful संभाव्य भविष्यत səmbhavyə bhəviṣyət ↝Eg. 1) शायद आज वह आये | šayd aj vəh aye | 2) संभाव हे श्यामा पत्र लिखे | səmbhəv hϨ šyama pətrə likhe | 3) कदाचित शाम तक पानी पड़े | kədacit šam tək pani: pəɽe | It would be raining in the evening.Agreement of the verb with the subject :
1. 1) मै खुश हूँ | məi khuš hũ | I am happy. 2) तू खुश है | tu khuš hϩ̃ | You are happy. 3) वह खुश है | वह/वो vəh khuš hϩ̃ (vən/vo) He is happy.
The double underlined verbs in the above sentences are all different forms of the same verb ‘to be’ in the simple present tense. But the first verb is different from others. The singular form of the pronouns are here. Which are the subject are related to theverb.
2.
1) हम खुश है |
həm khuš hϩ̃ |
we are happy.
2) -a-तुम खुश हो |
tum khuš ho |
you are happy.
-b-आप खुश है |
ap khuš hϩ̃ |
you are happy.
3) वे खुश है |
ve khuš hϩ̃ |
They are happy.
The plural form of the pronouns are here which are the subject and are related to the verb.
Theperson of verbs in Hindi: The Number, for Masculine in present tense (indefinite) The Gender and The person are given here.
Person Singular Plural Ist person 1) मै जाता हूँ | हम जाते है | məi jata hũ | həm jate hϩ̃ | I go We go IIrd person 2) तू जाता है | तुम जाते हो | tu: jata hϩ̃ | tum jate ho | You go You go IIIrd person 3) वह वो जाते है | वे जाते है | vəh/vo jate hϩ̃ | ve jate hϩ̃ | He goes. They go. For Feminine Person Singular Plural Ist person 1) मै जाती हूँ | हम जाती है | məi jati: hũ | həm jati: hϩ̃ | I go We go. IInd person 2) तू जाती है | तुम जाती हो | tu jati: hϩ̃ | tum jati: ho | You go You go. आप जाती हो | ap jati: ho You go. IIIrd person 3) वह/वो जाती है | वे जाती है | vəh/vo jate hϩ̃ | ve jati hϩ̃ | She goes. They go.For masculine in past tense (Past indefinite)
Person Singular Plural Ist person 1) मैने फल खाया | उसने फल खाया | məine phəl khaya | həmne phəl khəya I ate fruit We ate fruits. 2) तूने फल खाया | तुमने फल खाया | tune phəl khaya | tumne phəl khaya | You ate fruit. You ate fruit. आपने फल खाया | apne phə khaya | You ate fruit. IIIrd person 3) उसने फल खाया | इन्होने फल खाया | usne phəl khaya | unhone phəl khaya | He ate fruit. They ate fruit.For feminine in past tense:
Person Singular Plural Ist person 1) मै गई | हम गई | ( गई/गयी ) məi gəi: | həm gəi: |(gəi:/gəyi:) I went We went. IInd person 2) तू गई/गयी | तुम गयी | tu: gəyi: | tum gəyi: | You went. You went. आप गयी | ap gəyi: | You went. IIIrd person 3) वह गयी | वे गयी | vəh/vo gəyi: | ve gəyi: | She went. They went.For Masculine in future tense (Future indefinite)
Person Singular Plural Ist person 1) मैं फल खाऊँगा | हम फल खायेगे | məi phəl khaũ:ga | həm phəl khayẽge | I will eat a fruit. We will eat fruit. IInd person 2) तू फल खायेगा | तुम फल खाओगे | tu phəl khayega | tum phəl khaoge | You will eat fruit You will eat fruit. आप फल खायेगें | ap phəl khayẽge | You will eat fruit. IIIrd person 3) वह वो फल खायेगा | वे फल खायेगें | vəh/vo phəl khayega | ve phəl khayẽge | He will eat a fruit. They will eat fruit.For feminine in future tense :
Person Singular Plural Ist person 1) मै फल खाऊँगी | हम फल खायेगी | məi phəl khaũ:gi: | həm phəl khayegi:| I will eat fruit. We will eat fruit. IInd person 2) तू फल खाहेगी | तुम फल खाओगी | tu phəl khayegi: | tum phəl khaogi: | You will eat fruit. You will eat fruit. आप फल खायेगी | ap phəl khayegi: | You will eat fruit. IIIrd person 3) वह वो फल खायेगी | वे फल खायेगी | vəh/vo phəl khayegi: | ve phəl khayegi: | She will eat fruit. They will eat fruit.
Adjectives višeṣəṇ ↝ Words that describe nouns are called adjectives or višeṣəṇ in Hindi : In Hindi: Adjectives has.
This adjective describe the quality, colour, shape, taste and size of the nouns coming after them.
Eg. Adjectives may come before or after the nouns.
1. लाल किला प्रसिद्ध है |
lal kila prəsiddhə hϨ |
The red fort is famous.
2. मै मीटा आम लूँगा |
məi mitha am lunga |
I will take a sweet mango.
The adjectives of quality are given here -
1. Expression - bhav -
1) अच्चा əccha - good 2) बुरा bura - bad
3) कायर kayər - loose hearted 4) वीर vi:r - brave
5) डरपोक dərpok - loose hearted
2. Colour - rəng ↝
1) लाल lal - red 2) हरा həra - green
3) पीला pi:la – Yellow 4) सफेद səphed - white
5) काला kala - black 6) चमकीला cəmki:la - shining
7) फीका phi:ka - colourless
3. Status - dəša ↝
1) पतला pətla – thin 2) मोटा moṭa – fat
3) सूखा su:kha – dry 4) पिधला pighla – melted
5) भारी bhari: – heavy 6) गीला gi:la – wet
7) गरीब gəri:b – poor 8) अमीर əmi:r – rich
9) स्वास्त्य swəsth – healthy 10) पालतू paltu: – pets
4. Size - akar ↝
1) गोल gol – round 2) सुडोल sudəul – in shape
3) नुकीला nuki:la – pointed 4) समान səman – same
5) पोला pola – empty inside
5. Time - səməy ↝
1) अगला əgla – coming day or next day 2) पिछला pichəla – back or yesterday
3) दोपहर dophər – noon 4) संध्या/शाम səndhya/šam – evening
5) सवेरा səvera – morning
6. Place - sthan ↝
1) भीतरी bhi:tri: - inside 2) बाहरी bahri - outside
3) पंजाबी pənjabi : - of punjab 4) जापानी japani: - of japan
5) पुराना purana - old 6) ताजा taja - fresh
7) आगामी agami : coming
7. Quality - gaṇ ↝
1) भला bhəla - nice 2) बुरा bura - ugly/bad
3) सुंदर sundər - beautiful 4) मीठा mi:ṭha - sweet
5) खट्टा khəṭta - sour 6) दानी dani: - donor
7) सचा saca - truth 8) झूठा jhu:tha - lie
9) सीधा sidha - simple/straight
8) Direction - diša ↝
1) उत्तरी uttəri - northen 2) दक्षिणी dəkṣini; - southern
3) पूर्वी purvi : - eastern 4) पाश्चिमी pəšcimi: - western
2. Adjectives of quantity परिमाणवाचक विशेषण pərimanvacək višeṣəṇ ↝
These adjectives goes with uncountable nouns.
It has two types - 1) definite / pərimanvacək višeṣəṇ 2) indefinite/pərimanvacək višeṣəṇ1. definite pərimanvacək višeṣəṇ नाश्चित परिमाणवाचक विशेषण nišcit pərimanvacək višeṣəṇ
Eg. 1) डाक बंगला तीन किलोमीटर दूर है | ḍak bəngala ti:n kilomi:tər du:r hϨ | The rest house is three K.M. far away. 2) दो मीटर कपड़ा दे दो | do mi:ṭər kəpɽa de do | give two metre cloth.2. Indefinite pərimanvacək višeṣən अनिश्चित परिमाणवाचक विशेषण ənišcit pərimanvacək višeṣən?
Eg. 1) अशोक ने थोड़ा दूध पी लिया | əšok ne thoɽa du:dh pi: liya | Ashok has drunk little milk. 2) कुच अंगूर दे दो | kuch əngur de do | give some grapes. 3) बोतल में थोड़ा पानी था | botəl mẽ thoɽa pani: tha | There was some water in the bottle.3. Numeral Adjective संख्यावाचक विशेषण sənkhyavacək višeṣən ↝
These adjectives goes with countable nouns. It has two types - i) definite sənkhyavacək višeṣən ii) indefinite sənkhyavacək višeṣən1) definite sənkhyavacək višeṣən निश्चित संख्यावाचक विशेषण nišcit sənkhyvacək višeṣən ↝
Eg. 1) बीस वर्ष बीत गये | bi:s vərṣ bi:t gəye | The twenty year has completed. 2) चार कुत्ते भाग रहे थे | car kutte bhag rəhe the | four dogs are running.2) Indefinite sənkhyavacək višesən अनिश्चित संख्यावाचक विशेषण ənišchit sənkhyavacək višeṣən ↝
Eg. 1) वह कुच लकड़िया बथेर रही थी | vəh kuch ləkɽiya bəṭor rhi: thi: | She was collecting some wooden sticks. 2) कुच बच्चे पार्क में खेल रहे है | kuch bəcche park mẽ khel rəhe hϨ | Some children are playing in the garden.4. Demonstrative Adjectives संकेतवाचक or सार्वनामिक विशेषण səketvacək or sarvnamik višeṣən ↝
They (adjectives) are used before the nouns to point out which person or thing is meant. They are made by pronouns that’s why they arealso called as sarvnamic višeṣən.
Eg. 1) वे उँट जा रहे है | ve unṭ ja rəhe hϨ | Those camel are going. 2) ये बालक आ रहे है | ye balək a rəhe hϨ | These boys are coming.5. Possessive Adjectives:
The underlined words in the sentences are alladjectives and since they shwo possession or minership they are called possessive adjectives.
Eg.
1) यह मेरी टोपी है |
yəh meri: topi: hϨ |
This is my cap.
2) यह हमारी पाठशाला है |
yəh həmari: paṭhšala hϨ |
Thsi is ours school.
3) वे मेरे माता पिता है |
ve mere mata-pita hϨ |
They are my parents.
In the above sentences the words meri: ‘my’ həmari: ‘ours’ and mere ‘my’ are the possessive adjectives. It comes before the noun topi: ‘cap’, paṭh šala ‘school’ and mata-pita ‘parents’ and pronouns are used here attributively.
The adjectives are used in comparison has three types of Hindi:
1. Possitive Degree मूलावस्ता mu:lavstha 2. Comparative Degree उत्तरावस्ता uttəravəstha 3. Superlative Degree उत्तमावस्ता uttəmavəsta1. Positive Degree मूलावस्ता mu:lavstha :
Eg. 1) रमा मोटी है | rəma moṭi: hϨ | Rama is fat. 2) मोहन बलवान है | mohən bəlvan hϨ | Mohan is strong. 3) शायना सुन्दर लड़की है | šayna sundər ləɽki: hϨ | Shayna is a beautiful girl.2. Comparative Degree उत्तरावस्ता uttəravəstha :
Eg. 1) श्यामा रमा ते अधिक मोटी है | šyama rəma se ədhik moṭi: hϨ | Shyama is fatter than rama. 2) मोहन सोहन से अधिक बलवान है | mohən sohən se ədhik bəlvan hϨ | Mohan is stronger than sohan. 3) मोहन सोहन से अधिक बलवान है | neha šayna ki: əpekša ədhik sundər hϨ | Neha is more beautiful than shayna.3. Superlative Degree उत्तमावस्ता uttəmavastha :
Eg. 1) विमला सबसे अधिक मोटी है | viməla səbse ədhik moṭi: hϨ | Vimala is the fattest. 2) दारासिंह सबसे अधिक बलवान है | darasing səbse ədhik bəlvan hϨ | Darasing is the strongst.
There aresome rules for making comparative and superlative degree of adjectives.
Positive Comparative Superlative 1) अच्ची अधिक अच्ची सबसे अच्ची əcchi: ədhik əcchi: səbse əcchi: 2) बुद्धिमान अधिक बुद्धिमान सबसे अधिक बुद्धिमान buddhiman ədhik buddhiman səbse ədhik buddhiman2. By adding ‘tər’ word for comparative degree and ‘təm’ for superlative degree in tətsəm words.
Positive Comparative Superlative 1) उच्च uccə–high उच्चतर uccətər–higher उच्चतम uccətəm–highest 2) विशाल višal–large विशालतर višaltər–larger विशालतम višaltəm–largest 3) मधुर mədhur–sweet मधुरतर mədhurtər–sweeter मधुरतम mədhurtəm –sweetest 4) अधिक ədhik–much अधिकतर ədhiktər–more अधिकतम ədhiktəm–most
Adverbs क्रिया विशेषण Kriya višeṣən ↝
It is (indeclinable) it is not inflected by number gender and case.
An adverb is a word used to add something to the meaning of a verb, an adjective or another adverb. In Hindi: It has four types -
1. Adverb of Time कालवाचक क्रिया विशेषण Kalvacək Kriya Višeṣən ↝
It describes the time of doing Kalvacək Kriya Višeṣən things.
Eg.
1) मै अभी आ रहा हूँ |
məin əbhi a rəha hũ |
I am comingnow.
2) मैं उससे कल मिला |
məi usəse kəl mila |
I met him yesterday
3) पानी निरन्तर बह रहा है |
pani: nirəntər bəh rəha hϨ |
The water is flowing continuously.
The underlined words are called kalvacək adverbs.
Some Kalvacək Kriya Višeṣən (Adverb of Time) are here –
1) यदा yəda – sometimes 2) कदा kəda – somewhere 3) जब jəb – when 4) तब təb – when 5) हमेशा həmeša – always 6) तभी təbhi: – then 7) तक्काल tətkal – immediately 8) निरन्तार nirəntər – constinuously 9) शीघ्र šighrə – instantly 10) पूर्व pu:rv – before 11) बाद bad – after 12) पिछे piche – behind 13) अब əb – now 14) घड़ी घड़ी ghəɽi: – ghəɽi: -every minute 15) तत्पश्चत tətpəšcat – after that 16) कल kəl – tomorrow (identity by verb) future tense 17) कल kəl – yesterday (identity by past verb tense. 18) कई बार kəi: bar – many times 19) अभी əbhi: – now 20) फिर कभी phir kəbhi: – sometime next.
2. Adverb of place स्तानवाचक क्रिया विशेषण Sthanvacək Kriya Višeṣən – It refers to the place where the action take place.
Eg. 1) भीतर जाफर बैठिए | bhi:tər jakər bəiṭhiye | sit inside 2) किधर जा रहे हो | kidhər ja rəhe ho ? where are you going ? 3) मैने अपना पेन हरजगह दूडा (खोजा) | məine əpna pen hərjəgəh dhnḍa (khoja) | I searched my pen everywhere. 4) वह नीचे गहा है | vəh ni:ce gəya hϨ | He went down.
Some Sthanvacək Kriyavišeṣən (Adverbof place) are given below.
1) भीतर bhi:tər - inside 2) बाहर bahər - outside 3) अन्दर əndər - in 4) यहाँ yəhã - here 5) वहाँ vəhã - there 6) किधर kidhər - where 7) इदर idhər - here 8) उदर udhər - there 9) जहाँ jahã - there 10) कहाँ kəhã - where 11) पास pas - near 12) दूर dur - far 13) अन्यत्र ənyatrə - somewhere else 14) इस ओर is or this side 15) उस ओर us or that side 16) डाये daye- right 17) बाये baye - left 18) ऊपर u:pər - up 19) नीचे ni:ce - down/below.
3. Adverb of Quantity परिमाणवाचक क्रिया विशेषण pərimanvacək Kriya višeṣən
Eg. 1) थोड़ा विश्राम कर लो | thoɽa višram kər lo | Take some rest. 2) आज उसने बहुत खा लिया | aj usne bəhut kha liya | Today he ate too much. 3) वह कम खाता है | vəh kəm khata hϨ | He eats less. 4) वह अधिक बोलता है | vəh ədhik bolta hϨ | He talks very much (more)
Some Pərimanvacək Kriya Višeṣən (Adverb of Quantity) are – given below:
1) बहुधा bəhudha - always 2) थोड़ा थोड़ा thoɽa - thoɽa - little - little 3) अत्यंत ətyənt - verymuch (too) 4) अधिक ədhik - more 5) अल्प əlpə - less 6) बहुत bəhut - very much 7) कुच kuch - some 8) पर्याप्त pəryapt - sfficient 9) कम kəm - less 10) न्यून nyu:n - less 11) बूद - बूद bu:nd- bu:nd - drop- drop 12) स्वल्प swəlp - less 13) केवल kewəl - only 14) प्राय pray: - always 15) सर्वथा sərvtha - everywhere
4. Advreb of Manner रितिवाचक क्रियाविशेषण Ri:tivacək Kriya Višeṣən :
It describes the manner of Ri:tivacək Kriya Višeṣən doing things.
Eg.
1) वह धीरे धीरे काम करता है |
vəh dhi:re - dhi:re kam kərta hϨ |
he works slowly.
2) वह गाडी तेज चलाता है |
vəh gaḍi: tej cəlata hϨ |
He drives the vehicle fast.
3) वह अचानक गिर पड़ा |
vəh əcanək gir pəɽa |
He fell (down) suddenly.
4) दिन जल्दी जल्दी ढल रहा है |
din jəldi: jəldi: ḍhəl rəha hϨ |
The day is running fast.
5) धीरे धीरे चलिये |
dhi:re dhi:re cəliye |
Walks slowly.
Some Ri:tivacək Kriya Višeṣən (Adverb of Manner) are given below:
1) अचानक əcanək – suddenly 2) सहसा səhsa – frequently 3) ठीक ṭhi:k – alright 4) सचमुच səcmuc – really 5) अवश्य əvšyə - sure 6) वास्तव में vastəv mẽ -in reality 7) शायद šayəd – may be 8) निस्सन्देह nissəndeh – no doubt 9) सम्भव है səmbhəv hϨ - possibly 10) कदाचित kədacit - may be 11) हाँ hã - yes/o.k 12) सच səc - really 13) जी ji: - o.k. 14) जरूर jəru:r – sure 15) बैशक bϨšək – no doubt 16) किसलिये kisliye – for what 17) कयोंकी kyõki: - cause 18) नही nəhi: - no 19) ना na – no 20) मत mət – don’t / no 21) कही नही khi: nəhi: - never 22) कदापि नही kədapi nəhi: -never
Postposition सम्बंधबोधक अव्यय səmbəndh bodhək əvyəy ↝
Words which are used before a noun or a pronoun and which show their relation to some other words in the sentence are called postpositions. In Hindi: they are not infleded with Number, Gender and Case.
Eg.
1) वह मन्दिर के साम्ने रहता है |
vəh məndir ke samne rəhta hϨ |
He lives in front of the temple.
2) चिड़िया चत पर बैठी है |
ciɽiya chət pər bəiṭhi: hϨ |
The sparrow has sat on the roof.
3) शेर कुएँ में कूद पड़ा |
šer kuϨ mẽ ku:d prɽa |
The lion jumped into the well.
4) मै तुम्हारे साथ पाठशाला जाऊँगा |
məin tumhare sath paṭhəšala jaũ:ga |
I will goto the school with you.
5) गाड़ी के अन्दर जाओ |
gaɽi: ke əndər jao |
Go inside the car (vehicle)
The underline words are Postpositions (Postposition) or səmbəndhbodhək əvyəy in Hindi.
Postpositions of Hindi: Divided according to the meaning are here - Give examples of Postpositions alongwith.
1. कालवाचक kalvacək – time : 1) पहले pəhle – before 2) बाद bad – after 3) आगे age – forward – afterward 4) पीचे piche – backward 2. स्तानवाचक Sthanvacək ↝ 1) बाहर bahər – outside 2) भीतर bhi:tər – inside 3) बीच bi:c – in middle 4) ऊपर u:pər – upside 5) नीचे ni:ce – downside / below 6) में mẽ – inside 7) पर pər – on/over 3. दिशावाचक dišavacək – direction ↝ 1) निकट nikəṭ – cause 2) पास pas – near/close 3) समीप səmip – close 4) ओर or – that side 5) सामने samne – infront 4. साधनवाचक sadhənvacək – instrument ↝ 1) निमित्त nimittə – cause 2) द्वारा dwara – with/by 3) जरिये jəriye – by /with 5. विरोधसूचक virodhsu:cək – opposite / Antonyme ↝ 1) उलटे ulṭe – return 2) विरूद्ध viruddhə – Opposite 3) प्रतिकूल prətiku:l – not favourable 6. समतासूचक səmta su:cək – synonym ↝ 1) अनुसार ənusar – according 2) सामान səman – similar 3) तरह tərh – equivalent 7. हेतुवाचक hetuvacək – apart from ↝ 1) रहित rhit – without 2) अथवा əthva – or 3) सिवा siva – without 4) बिना bina – without 5) अतिरिक्त atirikt – in addition/apart from 8) सहचरसूचक səhcər su:cək – company/togetherness ↝ 1) समेत səmet – with 2) संग səŋg – with 3) साथ sath – with 9) विषयवाचक viṣəyvacək – matter ↝ 1) विषय viṣəy – toppic/matter 2) बाबत babət – matter 3) लेख lekh – an article 10) रोग्रहवाचक səŋgrəh vacək – collection ↝ 1) समेत səmet – included 2) भर bhər – that much 3) तक tək – upto
1. Some of these postpositions are used as Adverbs or Kriya višeṣən. The difference between the Postposition and Adverb is as follows -
Postpositions are used with the nouns or pronouns and adverbs are those which come with the verb and describes the verb. Write the brief note about the Eg.
1) अन्दर आओ |
əndər ao
Come inside
2) दुकान के बीतर आओ |
dukan ke bhi:tər ao |
Come inside the shop.
2. The noun orpronoun which follows a postposition is its object. So it should be in the objective case it goes with -
Eg.
1) मेरे mere – mine मेरी meri: - mine (not with मै məi – I)
2) उसका /उसके uska /uske – his/ them (not with / वह / वे vəh/ve - He/they)
3) तुम्हारे / tumhare – your not with तू tu / तुम - tum / आप - ap / You.
Conjunction समुच्चयबोदक अव्यय səmuccəy bodhək əvyəy ↝
A Conjunction is a word which used for joining words, phrases, clauses or sentences.
Eg.
1) शायना और नेहा पढ़ रहे है |
šayna əur neha pəɽ re hϨ |
Shayna and Neha are studying.
2) आम या अंगूर कोई फल अवश्य लाओ |
əm ya əŋgur koi: phəl əvšyə lao |
Bring some fruits either mango or grapes.
Some other word of conjuctions are used as ‘and’
Negatives – There are two negative particles which are used in the construction indicating polarity of negationi. They are -
1) नही ना nəhi - na “no no” 2) मत ना mət na “not”
Affirmatives - There are three affirmative particles in this langauge. These particles are used to express concurrence of action. They occur during conversation or any where. They are -
1) हाँ hã - yes 2) जी ji: “ok” हाँ जी hã ji: “yes, ok” 3) ठिक thik – o.k.
Emphatives (Cliteics) : There is a small group of particles which denote emphasis or convey the meaning of ‘too’ or also. Syntactically, they occur after the words of any class.
Eg. भी bhi:, ही hi:
1) मैने भी किताब पढ़ी |
məine bhi: kitab pəɽi: |
I also read the book.
2) सिर्फ मै ही आऊ |
sirf məi hi: au: |
I come only.
3) मै सर्कस जाऊँगा ही |
məi sərkəs jau:nga hi: |
I will also go to circus.
Sometimes the clitic -bhi: and - hi: are used to express the sense of indefiniteness -
1) कहाँ kəhã “where” कहीभी kəhi:bhi: “anywhere” कही ही kəhi: hi: “anywhere” 2) कौन kəun “who” कोई भी koi: bhi: “anybody”
1) हाय हाय hai – hai “sorrow” 2) बाप रे bap re “ pain” 3) हो भगवान he bhəgvan “ pain” 4) अओ माँ o mã “pain” 5) वाह वाह vah – vah “admiration” 6) अहा əha “admiration” 7) शाबाश šabaš “Praise” 8) छिः chi: “disgust” 9) हट həṭ “disgust” 10) धत dhət “disgust” 11) ओहो o ho “wonder” 12) हाँ हाँ hã hã “affirmation” 13) बहुत अच्चा bəhut əccha “affirmation” 14) जी हाँ ji: hã “affirmation” 15) चुप cup “(shut up) “disgust” 16) काश kaš “if ”
1) अरे əre “ O” 2) अरी əri: “O” 3) ओ O “O” 4) आजी əji
1) नमस्कार nəmskar
2) प्रणाम prənam
3) आप कैसे हो |
ap kəise ho ?
How are you ?
4) सब ठीक है |
səb thik hϨ |
It is o.k.
5) अच्चा, चलता हूँ |
əcha, cəlta hũ |
farewell.
6) ठीक से जाना |
thik se jana |
farewell.
7) अच्चा, आता हूँ |
əccha, ata hũ |
farewell
8) अच्चा हूँ
əccha hũ |
It is o.k.
1) दीर्घायु हो |
di:rghayu ho |
live long life.
2) जीते रहो |
ji:te rəho |
live long life.
In Hindi lanaguage Nouns are derived from - 1) Nouns 2) Pronouns 3) Adjectives 4) Adverbs 5) Verbs.
Adjectives are derived from - 1) Nouns 2) Pronouns 3) Adverbs 4) Verbs 5) Adjectives
Verbs are derived from - 1) Nouns 2) Pronouns 3) Adjectives 4) Adverb
The derivation of adverbs are not present in the Hindi: langauge.
Derivational Morphology : Nouns ↝
Suffixes Common Noun (to) Abstract noun ता ta 1) देव dev “god” देवता devta “godness” 2) मित्र mitrə “friend” मित्रता mitrəta “friendship” 3) मनुष्य mənuṣyə “human” मनुष्यता mənuṣyəta “humanity” पन pən 1) ləɽka लड़का “boy’ लड़कापन ləɽkpən “boyness” 2) बच्चा bəccha “child” बचपन bəcpən “childhood” 3) बालक balək “child” बालकपन bələkpən “childhoodness” त्व twə 1) पुरूष puruṣ “male पुरूषत्व puruṣtwə “malehood” 2) बन्धु bəndhu “friend” बन्धुत्व bəndhutwə “friendship” 3) नारी nari: “female” नारीत्व naritwə “femalehood” ई i: 1) दुश्मन dušmən “rival” दुश्मनी dušməni “rivaly” 2) मुक्त muktə “free” मक्ति mukti: “freedom” 3) उन्नत unnət “develop” उन्नती unnəti: “development” यत yət 1) इन्सान insan “human” इन्सानियत insaniyət “humanity” 2) आदमी admi: “male” आदमियत admiyət “maleness”
Suffixes Pronoun (to) Abstract noun पन pən 1) अपना əpna “My/our” अपनापन əpnapən “closeness” त्व twə 1) अपना əpna “My” अपनत्व əpnətwə “Mineness”
Suffixes Pronoun (to) Abstract noun ता ta 1) सुंदर sundər “beauty” सुंदरता sundrta “beautiful” 2) मृदु mrudu “soft” मृदुता mruduta “softness” 3) सफल səphəl “success” सफलता səphəlta “success” 4) कठोर kəṭhor “hard” कठोरता kəṭhorta “hardness” स sə 1) मीठा mi:ṭha “sweet” मिठास miṭhas “sweetnesss” 2) खट्टा khəṭṭa “sour” खटास khəṭas “sourness” Suffixes Adjectives (to) Abstract nouns ई i: 1) चतुर cətur “clever” चतुराई cəturai: “cleverness” 2) सफेद səphed “white” सफेदी səphedi: “whiteness” 3) गर्म gərm “warm” गर्मी gərmi; “warmth” 4) बुरा bura “bad” बुराई burai “badness” 5) मजबूत məjbu:t “strong” मजबूती məjbu:ti “strongness” थ्या thyə 1) अतिथि ətithi “guest” आतिथ्य atithyə “treatment” 2) स्वस्त्य swəsthə “healthy” स्वास्त्य swasthyə “health” पन pən 1) बड़ा bəɽa “great” बडप्पन bəɽppən “greatness” 2) सीधा si:dha “simple” सीधापन si:dhapən “simpleness” 3) पुराना purana “old” पुरानापन puranapən “oldness” 4) काला kala “black” कालापन kalapən “blackness” पा pa 1) मोटा moṭa “fat” मोटापा moṭapa “fatness”
Suffixes Verbs (to) Abstract noun ई i: 1) कमाना kamana “to earn” कमाई kəmai: “earning” 2) लिखना likhna “towrite” लिखाई likhai: “writing” 3) रोना rona “to cry” रुलाई rulai: “crying” 4) धोना dhona “to wash” धुलाई dhulai: “washing” हट / वट hət/vət 1) चिल्लाना cillana “to shout” चिल्लाहट cillahət “shouting” 2) गुराना gurrana “to roar” गुराहट gurrahət “roaring” 3) सजाना səjana “to decorate” सजावट səjavət “decoration” 4) गिरना girna “to fall” गिरावट giravət “falling” आव / आवा av /ava 1) चुनना cunna “to select” चुनाव cunav “selection” 2) बहना bahna “to flow” बहाव bəhav “flow” 3) फैलना phϨlna “to spread” फैलाव phϨlav “spreading” 4) बुलाना bulana “to call” बुलावा bulava “calling” आन an 1) उड़ना uɽha “to fly” उड़ान uɽan “fly” 2) थकना thəkna “to tired” थकान thəkan “tiredness” 3) मुस्काना muskana “to tired” मुस्कान muskan “smile” अ ə 1) मिलना milna “to meet” मेल / मिलन mel/milən “meeting” 2) खेलना khelna “to play” खेल khel “play/game” 3) डरना dərna “to fear” डर dər “fear” 4) दौड़ना dəuɽna “to run” दौड़ dəuɽ “running” 5) जितना jitna “to win” जित ji:t “winning” 6) खोजना khojna “to search” खोज khoj “searching”
Suffixes Adverbs (to) Abstract nouns ता ta 1) संभव səmbhəv “Possible” संभवता səmbhəvta “possibility” ना nə संभावना səmbhəvna ता ta 1) निकट nikət “close” निकटता nikəṭəta “closeness” 2) समान səman “similar” समानता səmanta “similarity” 3) अतिरिक्त ətiriktə “extra” अतिरिक्तता ətiriktəta “extraness” 4) शीघ्र si:ghrə “hurri” शीघ्रता si:ghrəta “hurryness” ई i: 1) संग səŋg “with” संगति səŋgti “company” त tə 1) संग səŋg “with” संगत səŋgət “company”
Adjectives↝
Suffixes Nouns to Adjectives इक ik 1) वर्ष vəṣ “year” वार्षिक varṣik “Yearly” 2) पक्ष pəkṣə “party/side” पाक्षिक pakṣik “Partily” 3) शरीर səri:r “body” शारिरिक šari:rik “bodily” ई i: 1) रोग rog “decease” रोगी rogi: “patient” 2) जंगल jəŋgəl “forest” जंगली jəŋgəli: “wild” 3) स्वदेश swədes “(own)country स्वदेशी swədeši: “native” इत it 1) कुसुम kusum “flower” कुसुमित kusumit “blossoming” 2) ध्वनि dwəni “sound” ध्वनित dwənit “sounding” इल il 1) जटा jəta “hair” जटिल jətil “difficult” इम im 1) स्वर्ण swərn “gold” स्वणिर्म swərnim “goldy” 2) रक्त rəkt “blood” रक्तिम rəktim “bloodly” ईन / ईण 1) नमक nəmək “salt” नमकीन nəmki:n “salty’ i:n/i:ṇ 2) ग्राम gram “village” ग्रामीण grami:ṇ “villager” ईय i:y 1) भारत bharət “India” भारतीय bharti:y “Indian” 2)स्वर्ग swərg “heaven” स्वर्गीय swərgi:y “heavenly” 3)शास्त्र šastrə “logic” शास्त्रीय šastri:y “logically आलु alu 1) ईर्ष्या i:rṣya “jeolosy” ईर्ष्यालु i:rsyalu “jealous” 2) दया dəya “kind” दयालु dəyalu “Kindhearted” आलू alu: 1) घर ghər “home” घरेलू ghərelu “homely” मय 1) सुख sukh “heppyness” सुखमय sukhəməy “happy 2) दुःख du:kh “sorrow” दुःखमय du:khəməy “sorrowful” ईला i:la 1) जहर jəhər “poison” जहरीला jəhri:la “poisolous” 2) बर्फ bərph “ice” बर्फीला bərphi:la “icy” दार dar 1) ईमान i:man “loyalty” ईमानदार i:mandar “loyal” अक ək 1) आकर्षण akərṣəṇ “attraction” आकर्षक akərṣək “attractive” 2) रोमांच romãc “thrill” रोमांचक romãncək “thrilling” मान man 1) बुद्धि buddhi “knowledge” बुद्धिमान buddhiman “clever” वान van 1) रूप ru:p “beauty” रूपवान ru:pvan “beautiful” वति vəti: 1) गुण guṇ “quality” गुणवती guṇvəti: “having qualities” 2) पुत्र putrə “son” पुत्रवती putrəvəti: “having sons” मती məti: 1) श्री shri: “Mr.” श्रिमती Shri:məti: “Mrs.” रत rət 1) धर्म dhərm “religion” धर्मरत dhərmrət “religious” स्थ sthə 1) देह deh “body” देहस्थ dehathə “with body” निष्ठ niṣṭhə 1) धर्म dhərm “relition” धर्मनिष्ठ dhərm niṣṭhə “loyal to religion” मंद mənd 1) दौलत dəilət “property” दौलतमंद dəulətmənd “rich” या yə 1) पूजा puj:a “worship” पूज्य pu:jyə “respectable” 2) वन vən “forest” वन्य vənya “wild”
Suffixes Pronoun to Adjectives सा sa 1) वह vəh “that” वैसा vəisa “like that” 2) यह yəh ऐसा eisa “like this”
Suffixes Adverbs to Adjectives ता / आ 1) अधिक ədhik “more” अधिकता ədhikəta - ta / a 2) कम kəm “less” कमतरता kəmtərta “lessly” 3) प्राय pray: “often” प्रायःता pray:ta “oftenly” री / ई 1) बाहर bahr “outside” बाहरी bahri: “outside” ri: / i: 2) भीतर bhi:tər “inside” भीतरी bhi:təri: “inside” स्थ /sthə 1) समीप səmi:p “near” समीपस्थ səmi:pə sthə “nearest” ई / i: 1) ऊपर u:pər “upside” ऊपरीली u:pri:li: “upper” 2) निचे nice “below” निचली nicli: “lower”
Suffixes Verbs to Adjectives ऊ u: 1) झगड़ना jhəgɽəna – to quarrel झगड़ालू jhəɽalu: - who quarrels 2) लड़ना ləɽəna – to fight लड़ाकू ləɽaku: - fighter वाला vala 1) गाना gana – to sing गानेवाला ganevala – singer 2) पढ़ना pəɽhəna – to read पढ़नेवाला pəɽhənevala – reader 3) भागना bhagna – to run भागनेवाला bhagnevala – runner दार dar 1) समझना səməjh – to understand समझदार səməjhədar – intelligent ई / i: 1) ढँकना ḍhə̴kna – to cover ढँकी dhə̴ki: - covered आ a 1) उबलना ubləna – to boil उबला ubəla – boiled
Verbs↝
Suffixes Common noun Verb nə 1) झगड़ा jhəgəɽa – quarrel झगड़ना jhəgəɽna – to quarrel 2) समझ səməjh – understinding समझना səmjhana – to make understand 3) बारिश bariš – rain बरसना bərsəna – to rain 4) थकान thəkan – tired थकना thəkna – to be tired 5) झुठ jhuṭh – false झुठलाना thuthəlana – to disgree 6) कै kϨ – vomiting कै करना kϨ – vomit 7) बुनाई bhunai: – weaving बुनना bunəna – to weave 8) भोजन bhojən – food भोजन करना bhojən kərna – to eat 9) खाना khana – meal खाना khana – to eat 10) लढ़ाई ləɽhai: – fight लढ़ना ləɽhəna – to fight 11) हार har – defeat हारना harna – to be defeated 12) झाड़ jhaɽ – tree झाड़ना jhaɽna – to broom 13) चढ़ाई cəɽhai – climbing चढ़ना cəɽhəna – to climb 14) हाथियार nəthiyar – weapon हाथियाना nəthiyana – to snatch
Suffixes Pronoun to Verb ना na 1) अपना əpna – mine अपनाना əpnana – to adopt
Suffixes Adjectives to Verb ना na 1) चमक cəmək – shine चमकाना cəmkana – to shine 2) चिपकू cipku: - sticky चिपकाना cipkana – to stick 3) लाजालु lajalu – shy लजाना ləjana – to feel shy 4) शर्मीला sərmi:la – shy शर्माना šərmana – to feel shy 5) झिजक jhijhək – shy झिजकना jhijhəkna – to feel shy
Suffix Adverb to Verb ना na 1) संग səŋg - with संगत करना səŋgət kərna – to accompany 2) साथ sath – with साथ करना sath kərna – to keepcompany
Prefixes of Hindi langauge are divided into four types –
1. Prefixes of sanskrit 2. Prefixes of Hindi: 3. Prefixes of Urdu: 4. Adjuncts of sanskrit which are used as prefixes in Hindi.
1.Prefixes of sanskrit संस्कृत के उपसर्ग sənskrut ke upsg ↝
उपसर्ग upsərg word – form 1) अति əti – more a) अतिरिक्त ətirikt - extra / other than 2) अधि ədhi – power a) अधिकार ədhikar – power/passession b) अध्यक्ष ədhyəkṣə - president 3) अनु ənu - a) अनुकरण ukəraṇ - to follow/to repeat b) अनुरूप ənuru:p – similar 4) अप əp - a) अपमान əpman – insult b) अपयश əpyəš - failure 5) अभि əbhi - a) अभिमान əbhiman – proud b) अभिवादन əbhivadən - greeting c) अभिभावक əbhibhavək – guardian 6) अव əv a) अवगुण əvguṇ - bad qualities b) अवशेष əvšeṣ - remaining parts of dead body 7) आ a a) आजन्म ajənmə - till life b) आगमन agmən - coming 8) उत ut a) उत्कठा utkəṭha - curiocity b) उत्पन्न utpənnə - producing 9) उप up a) उपदेश updeš – lecture/advice b) उपचार upcar – treatment 10) दुर dur a) दुर्देशा durdəša – bad condition b) दुर्गम durgəm – lonely place 11) दुस dus a) दुस्चरित्र duscəritrə - bad character b) दुस्मनि dušməni - enemity 12) नि ni a) नियुक्त niyukt - appointed 13) निर nir a) निर्मल nirmal – pure b) निर्जन lonely place 14) निस nis a) निश्चित nišcit – tensionless 15) परा pəra a) परामर्श pəramərš – advice b) पराधीन pəradhin – unsucceed 16) परि pəri a) परिजन pərijən – family member b) परिवर्तन pərivərtən – changed 17) प्र prə a) प्रयत्न prəyetnə - try b) प्रसिद्ध prəsiddhə - famous / popular 18) प्रति prəti - a) प्रत्येक prətyek – everyone b) प्रत्यक्ष prətyəkšə - in front c) प्रतिकूल prətiku:l – opposite 19) वि vi a) विशेष višes - sepcial b) वियोग viyog – apart 20) सम səm a) संचय səncay - saving b) संगति səngəti – company 21) सु su a) सुयश suyəš - success b) स्वागत swagət – welcome
2. Prefixes of Hindi: हिंदी के उपसर्ग Hindi: ke upsərg ↝
उपसर्ग upsərg word form 1) अ ə a) अकाल əkal – lack of water/food b) अछूत əchu:t – untouchable 2) अन ən a) अनपढ़ ənpəɽh – Non-literate b) अनजान ənjan – unknown 3) अध əd a) अधमरा ədhməra (half dead) badly injured b) अधपका ədhəpəka (half) uncooked 4) औ əu a) औगुन əugun - bad qualities b) औतार əutar – bad dress up 5) कु ku a) कुसंग kusəŋg - bad company 6) नि ni a) निहर nidər - brave b) निहत्था nihəttha – without weapon c) निकम्मा nikəmma – without earning(not working) 7) भर bhər a) भरपूर bərpu:r - fall of everything b) भरपेट bhərpeṭ - stomach full.
3. Prefixes of Urdu: उर्दू के उपसर्ग Urdu: ke upsərg :
उपसर्ग upsərg Word - form 1) कम kəm a) कमज़ोर kəmzor – weak b) कमसिन kəmsin – delicate 2) खुश khuš – happy a) खुष्बू khušbu: - perfume b) खुशामिजाज khušmiza - happily. 3) गैर gəir a) गैरहाज़िर gəirhazir - absent b) गैरकानूनी gəirka nu:ni: - illegal 4) दार dər a) दरअसल dərəsəl – actually b) दरमियान dərmiyan – in bewteen 5) ना na a) नापसंद napəsənd - dislike b) नामुमकिन namumkin - impossible 6) बा ba a) बाकायदा bakayda - according to the law b) बा-इज्जत ba - izzət - with prestie 7) बद bəd a) बदनाम bədnam – defamed b) बदचलन bədcələn – characterless c) बदमाश bədmaš – scoundrel 8) बे be a) बेचारा becara - poor (boy) b) बेअकल beəklə - without brain i.e. stupid 9) ला la a) लापरवह lapərvah – careless b) लाचार lacar –helpless 10) सर sər a) सरकार sərkar – government b) सरपंच sərpənc – head of the village 11) हम həm a) हमदर्दी həmdərdi: - sympathy b) हमराज həmraj - who shares secret. 12) हर hər a) हरदिन hərdin – every day b) हरएक hərek – every one c)हरसाल hərsal – year
4. Adjuncts of sanskrit which are used as prefixes in Hindi:
Upsərg Word - form 1. अ ə a) अझान – əgjan b) अभाव əbhav –1 lack of something c) अचेत əcet – senseless 2. अन ən a) अनर्थ ənarth – happening bd 3. स sə a) सहर्ष səhərṣ – with happiness 4. अधः ədhə : a) अधःपतन əshə: pətən – destroyed step by step b) अधोगति ədhogəti – destroyed step by step 5. चिर cir a) चिरायु cirayu – long life b) चिरकाल cirkal – fore ever 6. अन्तर əntər a) अन्तराष्ट्रीय əntəraṣṭi:y – international b) अन्तर्जातीय əntərjati:y – intercaste 7. पुनः punh: a) पुनर्जन्म punərjənm – rebirth b) पुनर्मिलन punərmilən – meet again c) पुनर्गमन punərgəmən – again coming 8. पुरा pura a) पुरातत्व puratətvə – archaive b) पुरातन puratən – antique 9. पुरस purus a) पुरस्कार purskar – prize b) पुरस्कृत purskrut – honour 10. तिरस ti:h a) तिरस्कार tirskar – hatred 11. सत sət a) सत्कार sətkar – honour b) सज्जन səjjən – good personal (well behaved) c) सत्कार्य sətkary – good work.
Compound समास səmas ↝
səmas is mean to make short the phrase without changing the meaning. It has two words, first word is called purvpəd and second word is called uttərpəd. It has four types.
1. अव्ययीभाव समास əvyəyi: bhav səmas 2. तत्पुरूष समास tətpuruṣ samas 3. द्वन्द्व समास dwəndwə səmas 4. बहुव्रीही समास bəhurvi:hi; səmas
1. अव्ययीभाव समास əvyəyi: bhav səmas ↝ əvyəyi:bhav səmas has its first word is main. समास /səmas division of səmas meaning Eg. 1) आमरण amərəṇ मृत्यु तक mrutyu tək till death death till 2) आजीवन aji:vən जीवन भर ji:vən bhər life long life long 3) यथाशक्ती yəthašəkti: शक्ति के अनुसार šakti ke ənusar According to power power to According. 4) यथाविधि yəthavidhi विधि के अनुसार ridhi ke ənusar According to rituals rituals to According 5) भरपेट bhərpeṭ पेट भरकर peṭ bhərkər Full of stomach stomach full 6) हररोज hərrojh रोज रोज rojh rojh daily 7) कानोंकान kanõkan एक कान से दूसरे कान ear to ear ek kan se du:sre kan 8) रातोंरात ratõrat रात ही रात में rat hi: rat mẽ during night 9) प्रतिदिन prətidin प्रत्येक दिन prətyek din every day every day 10) बेशक bešək शक के बिना šək ke bina (doubtless) definite doubt of without 11) निडर nidər डर के बिना dər ke bina without fear fear of without 12) प्रतिक्षण prətikṣəṇ क्षण क्षण kṣəṇ - kṣəṇ every minute minute minute
2. तत्पुरूष समास tətpuruṣ səmas ↝
In this səmas, The second word is main and the first word has less important is called tətpuruṣ səmas. According to the cases (karək) it is divided into six types -
1. कर्म तत्पुरूष kərm tətpuruṣ (objective) Eg. 1) स्वर्गप्राप्त = स्वर्ग को प्राप्त dead swərgpraptə = swərg ko prapt heaven got heaven to got 2) करण तत्पुरूष kərəṇ tətpuruṣ (Instrumental) by heart/mind Eg. 1) मनचाहा = मन से चाहा məncana mən se cana heart like heart by like 2) तुलसीकृत = तुसली द्वारा रचित mode by Tulsidas. tulsi:krut tulsi: dwara rəcit Tulsidas by created 3) सम्प्रदान तत्परूष (Dative) səmprədan tətpurus Eg. 1) रसोईघर = रसोई के लिये घर kitchen rəsoi:ghər = rəsoi: ke liye ghər kitchen for house 4) अपादान तत्पुरूष (Ablative) əpadəb tətpuruṣ Eg. 1) देशनिकाला = देश से निकाला send out of from the country dešnikala deš se nikala country from send out 2) कृणमुक्त = कृण से मुक्त The turning of debt (free from debt) kruṇmuktə kruṇ se muktə debt from free 5) सम्बंध तत्परूष (Relative) səmbdh tətpuruṣ Eg. 1) गंगाजल = गंगा का जल Water of Ganga (river) gəŋga jəl gəŋga ka jəl river of water ganga 6) आधिकरण तत्परूष (Locative) ədhikərṇ tetpuruṣ Eg. 1) नगरवास = नगर में वास Stay in the city/town nəgərvas nəgar mẽ vas town/in stay city 2) आपबीती = आप पर बीती Sth happened with sb. apbi:ti: ap pər bi:ti: myself on happened.
tətpuruṣ səmas has more three different types of səmas.
1. नत्र तत्पुरुष समास nətrə tətpuruṣ səmas 2. कर्मधारय समास kərmdharya səmas 3. द्विगु समास dwigu səmas
1. नत्र तत्पुरुष समास nətrə tətpuruṣ səmas ↝ It has its first word negative is called nətrə səmas.
Eg. 1) असभ्य əsəbhyə = न सभ्य not polite = nə səbhyə not polite/sophisticated 2) असंभव əsəmbhəv = न संभव not possible = impossible nə səmbhəv not possible 3) अस्तिर əsthir = न + स्तिर not stable = unstable nə sthir not stable 4) अभाव əbhav = न भाव lack of something nə bhav not something.
2. कर्मधारय समास kərmdharyə səmas ↝ It has the second word main, The first word working as the adjective of the second word, is called kərmdharyə səmas.
Eg. 1) कमल नयन = कमल के समान नयन kəməl nəyən kəməl ke səman nəyən lotus eyes lotus to similar eyes. eyes may similar to petals of lotus. 2) दही बड़ा = दही मे दूबा बड़ा dəhi: bəɽa dəhi: meɔ du:ba bəɽa curb pəkoda curd in sinked pakoda. curd mixed pakoda. 3) नील कमल = नीला कमल ni:l kəməl ni:la kəməl blue lotus blue lotus blue lotus 4) पीताम्बर = पीला अम्बर (वस्त्र) pi:tambər pi:la əmbər (vəstrə) yellow dress yellow dress (cloth) yellow cloths 5) नरसिंह = नरांे मे सिंह के समान nərsimh nərõ mẽ simhə ke səman man lion men in lion to similar A man is like lion(similar to lion) 6) चरण कमल = कमल के मान चरण cərṇ kəməl kəməl ke səman cərṇ foot lotus lotus to similar foot Similar to lotus.
3. द्विगु समास dwigu səmas ↝ It has its first word numerical and this səmas shows collectiveness.
Eg. 1) नवग्रह = नौ ग्रहों का समूह nəvgrəh nəu grəhõ ka səmu:h nine planets nine planets of group The group of nine planets (together) 2) दोपहर = दो पहरों का समाहार dophər do pəhrõ ka səmahar noon time beth the mor & eve. Afternoon. 3) नव रात्र = नौ रात्रियों का समूह nəv ratrə nəu ratriyõ ka səmu:h nine nights nine nights of group Nine nights. 4) चौमासा = चार मासों का समूह cəumasa car masõ ka səmu:h four months four months of group group of four months.
All these səmas are included in the tətpuruṣ səmas.
3. द्वन्द्व समास dwədwə səmas ↝ This səmas has its both words first and second are prime or main. After dividing it adds aur, əthwa, ya or ev between the both words.
Eg. 1 अन्न जल = अन्न और जल food and water ənnə - jəl ənnə aur jəl food (meal) and water 2) माँ बाप = मा औ बाप Mother & father mã bap mã aur bap mother and father 3) खरा खोटा = खरा या खोटा True or false khəra - khoṭa khəra ya khoṭa true or false 4) ऊच नीच = ऊच या नीच Good or bad u:c – ni:c u:c ya ni:c good or bad
4. बहुव्रीही समास bəhuvrihi: səmas ↝ This səmas what denoting both words is means something different.
Eg.
1) दशानन = दश है आनन मुख जिसके अर्थात रावण
dəšanən = dəš hϨ anən (mukh) jiske arthat ravəṇ
with ten faces = ten has faces.
The king of lanka i.e. Ravana.
2) नीलकंठ = नील है कंठ जिसका अर्थात शिव
ni:lkɳ̥ṭh = ni:la hϨ kɳ̥ṭh jiska ərthat šiv
blue throat = blue has throat.
The God šənkar
3) पीताम्बर = पीत है अम्बर वस्त्र जिसके अर्थात श्रीकृष्ण
pi:tambər = pi:t hϨ əmbər (vəstrə) jiske ərthat šrikruṇə
yellow dress = yellow has dress (cloth) i.e. God Srikrishna.
4) लम्बोदर = लम्बा है उदर पेट जिसका अर्थात गणेशजी
ləmbodər = ləmba hϨ udər (peṭ) jiska ərthat gəṇešji:
big stomach = big has stomac i.e. The God Ganesha
5) श्वेताम्बर = श्वेत है जिसके अम्बर (वस्त्र) अर्थात सरस्वती
swetambər = swet hϨjiske əmbər (vəstrə) ərthat sərswəti:
white dress = white has dress (cloth) i.e. the goddess swarswati.
In Hindi, kinship terminology is quite general. In the traditional extensive families kinship terms are used to express specific relationship. Age, laterality and relation by blood or marriage are the three important parameters used to indicate kinship terms.
father sister mother mother’s brother grandfather (father’s father) mother’s sister grandmother (father’s mother) father’s elder brother great grandfather father’s younger brother great grandfather father’s elder sister son father’s younger sister daughter elder sister brother elder brother younger brother wife younger sister husband husband’s father husband’s mother sister’s husband son’s wife daughter’s husband wife’s brother wife’s sister wife’s sister’s husband husband’s brother’s wife husband’s brother husband’s sister foster father foster son foster daughter guest cousin nephew niece Colour Terminology black yellow white purple violet brown green pink red sky-blue blue saffron orange Body Parts armpit heel back intestines beard jaw body knee bone leg brain lip breast liver cheek lung chest moustache chin mouth ear nail elbow naval eye neck eye-brow nose eye-lash palm face rib finger shoulder foot skin forehead skull hair sole of foot hand, arm stomach head thigh heart throat thumb toe tongue tooth wrist Cooking Terminology (i) Methods of Cooking: to boil to roast to cook to chop (vegetables) to pour to roast (vegetables) to roll to toast over open fire to cut to season with hot oil to knead to roll to heat to pound to mix to dry in the sun to grind to make syrup to stir to strain to grate to squeeze to dry (ii) Cooking Implements: big plate rolling base small plate rolling pin glass metal jug metal bowl stone base for grinding clay-oven stone for grinding coal-oven strainer spoon metal ladle with flat head pan metal ladle with holes metal box grater spice box knife metal tray for kneading dough small lid round metal pot with round huge metal pot bottom and a round metal traditional half-circle shaped knife rings to lift it (used for deep frying) fixed on a wooden base metal or wooden or stone object ladle for stirring and serving liquid for pounding or grinding clay or glass can to store cooking ingredients of pickles (iii) The Species turmeric mace chilly caraway seeds cumin fenugreek seeds coriander black cumin mustard aniseed poppy seeds black pepper fenugreek mango powder cinnamon cardamoms clove bay leaf nutmeg (iv) Cooking Ingredients rice fish green gram meat or chicken red lentils curd black gram milk red gram cheese wheat ghee flour butter vermicelli condensed milk salt oil sugar roundnut jaggery cashew nut vegetable raisin (v) Typical Dishes capātī ‘bread roasted on a metal pan’ phulkā ‘thin bread roasted on open fire’ parāṭha ‘bread pan-fried’ pūrī ‘deep-fried bread’ bhakrī ‘bread (thick) roasted on open fire’ bhāt ‘rice (plain) pulāw ‘spicy rice (with vegetable/meat)’ khīr ‘milk pudding of various kinds’ srīkhanḍa ‘a special yogurt dish’ caṭṇī ‘spices with water/tamarind paste’ dhirḍa ‘spicy pan-cake made of grain flour mixed with water and spices’ thālīpīṭh ‘spicy pan cake made by spreading the dough on the pan’ bhājī ‘vegetable waraṇ ‘lentil soup’ āmṭī ‘lentil soup of a special kind’ purṇācī poḷī ‘a special desert of bread stuffed within cooked lentil and sugar’ sābuḍāṇyāte wadī ‘a spicy snack made of tapioca and potatoes’ kośimbīr ‘salad with/without yogurt’ poḍācī waḍā ‘a spicy pastry made of green coriander’ ciroṭā ‘a desert pastry soaked in sugar syrup’ Name of Week The morpheme ‘day’ is used to indicate the day of the week raviwAr Sunday somvAr Monday mangalvAr Tuesday budhavAr Wednesday guruvAr Thursday sukravAr Friday sanivAr Saturday Name of Stars aświni jyēṣṭha bharaṇI uttarāṣhāḍha rōhiṇI śatābhiṣa kṛttikā uttarābhādra mrigaśirā puṣya cittā poorva hastā anurādha arundhatī śhrāvaṇa dhruva pūrvāṣhāḍha uttarā poorvābhādra ārdrā rēvati punɔrvasu āślēṣa māgha moolā vishākha dhaniṣtṭa Numbers One twenty six two twenty seven three twenty eight four twenty nine five thirty six forty seven fifty eight sixty nine seventy ten eighty eleven ninety twelve hundred or one hundred thirteen thousand fourteen ten thousands fifteen lakh sixteen ten lakhs seventeen crore eighteen nineteen twenty twenty one twenty two twenty three twenty four twenty five Stars sun moon planet star pole star morning star evening star milky way space sky Natural Objects hill sunlight mountain shadow river wind canal lighting spring thunder cloud rain Plants tree steam creeper branch shrub leaf grass flower root Fruits mango orange jackfruit banana litchi grapes guava pomegranate pineapple apple Animals tiger rat lion dog elephant crow horse hawk crocodile pigeon rhinoceros camel deer frog cow lizard goat rabbit hen snake peacock leopard buffalo scorpion cat Dress sari pajama petticoat shirt towel pant veil turban lungi cap dhoti chadder Personal Pronoun I You sg. He/ She We You pl. They Interrogatives Who When Where Why How Whom Locatives Here There Everywhere Nowhere Somewhere Near Far away Time Periods Morning Noon Afternoon Evening Night Twilight Dawn Size and Shape Fat Lean Thin Narrow Tall Dwarf Small Big Round Square Triangle
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