IV. SCRIPT & SPELLING

A. Type of Script:

Devanagari is known as the syllabic script, because its consonant letters includes the neutral vowel (ə), i.e. all the letters are syllabic in character.

B. Name of the Script/Scripts:

1. Geographical Distribution of the scripts:

All the Hindi states (Uttar Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Haryana, Delhi, Himachalpradesh, Rajasthan, Madhyapradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand and Bihar) use Devanagari as the official script of their state language i.e. Hindi.

2. Domain wise Distribution:

Hindi literature includes literature written in Khari Boli, Braj, Awadhi, Bundeli and Maithili also. In the past some Muslim poets like Amir Khusro used Arab-Persian script for Khair Boli poetry and Sufi saint poet Malik Mohammed Jayasi also used Arabi-Persian script for poetry written in Awadhi. His famous epic ‘Padmavat’ was originally written in Arabi-Persian script now it has been transliterated into Devanagari. Similarly, old Maithili poetry in available in Maithili scrpit.

3. Name of the officially recognized script:

The officially recognized script for Hindi is Devanagari. Devanagari Alphabets, known as Varṇamālā are the following:

अ आ इ ई उ ऊ ऋ ए ऐ ओ औ  अं  अ:  
क ख ग घ ड  
च छ ज झ ञ  
ट ठ ड ढ ण
त थ द ध न  
प फ ब भ म  
य र ल व श ष स ह क्ष त्र ज्ञ ड् ढ् श्र

Additional letters:

These are ऑ क़ ख़ ग़ ज़ and फ़. They are made by adding diacritic marks ॉ ़ in the already existing letters आ क ख ग घ ज फ.

C. Hindi Graphemes:

1. Number of Graphemes:

The exact number of graphemes cannot be given, because in the Hindi speaking areas, some speakers do not use all the graphemes do not use all the graphemes, given under ‘Devanagari Alphabets’.

Some letters, given under the head ‘Devanagari Alphabets, are clusters. e.g.

	क्ष  =  क् ष
	त्र  =  त् र
	ज्ञ  =  ग् य  (ज + ञ)  
	श्र  =  श् र 

3.Distribution of Allographs:

All vowels have 2 allographs.

	
	Initially		Elsewhere
			inherent in all 
			consonant letter   

	अ 		ा  
	आ 		ॉ
	इ 		
	ई		ी
	उ 		ु
	ऊ 		ू 
	ऋ 		ृ
	ए 		े
	ऐ 		ै
	ओ 		ो
	औ		ौ

Nasalisation:

It has two allographs: i.e. ँ ं . The former in used when the mātrās are not over the line. e.g.

	अँधेरा, आँख, बूँद

The latter is used when mātrās are over the lines, e.g.

	 हींग, में मैं, गोंद, लौंग

The grapheme र has 4 allographs:

1. र as in राम
2. प्र् as in प्रेम
3. र् as in कर्म
4. as in राष्ट्र

4.Rules for Combination:

Mātrā:

Every vowel has its own mātrā. In the non-initial position mātrā is used in place of the vowel grapheme.

Nukta:

Some borrowed words are having sounds, which are not formed in Sanskrit. For such sounds nukta is used below the letters such as क़, ख़, ग़, ज़, फ़.

Many writers, newspapers, magazines do not use nuktas. For some of them they are optional. But in writing high Hindi nuktas are preferred.

Cluster formation:

The following rules are followed while writing two consonants together:

1. The letters which are having vertical line, then in cluster formation the vertical line in deleted, i.e.

	स्वयाति, लग्न, विध्न

2. Combination of क and क्त.

	संयुक्त, पक्का, दफ्तर 

3. ड, ध, ट, ठ, ड, ढ, द and ह when used in clusters the sign ‘halant’ is used e.g.

	वाड्गय, सट्टू, बुड्ढा, विधा, चिहन, बहुमा.

4. 'र' has 3 more allographs: Ç Åõ

(i) when र is the second consonant in cluster, then ++ (as in प्रेम फ्रेम) is used exceptions are -

	When  ‘र‘ is the first consonant to be conjuncted, the  र्  is used e.g.  कर्म .  

When the second consonant in ट ठ ड ढ then Åõ allograph is used, e.g. देन, डूमा, राष्ट्र etc.

5. Phonemic graphemic fit:

In most of the cases there is correlation between Hindi grapheme and phoneme. But it is not hundred percent fit. So some guidelines are given here:

	Grapheme  		Phoneme/Phone 

	अ 				Ә
	आ 				a 
	ऑ				Ɔ
	इ 				I
	ई				 i
	उ 				U
	ऊ 				u
	ऋ 				rI 
	ए 				e 
	ऐ 				E 
	ओ 				o 
	औ				O
	
			Medially			Finally
	अं 		ŋ, ɲ, ɳ̥			əm
			n, m  				as in  स्वयं  
			as in अंग
			टंचल, रंड, 
			दंत, दंभ		

	अ:		əh 				əh


     Grapheme		Phoneme/Phone 

	क 			kə 
	ख 			khə
	ग 			gə
	घ 			ghə
	ड़			ŋə
	च 			cə
	छ			chə
	ज 			jə 
	झ 			jhə
	ञ 			ɲə
	ट 			ṭə
	ठ 			ṭhə 
	ड 			də
	ढ			ḍhə
	ण 			ṇə

	ड़  			ṛə 
	ढ़ 			ṛhə
	त  			tə 
	थ 			thə
	द 			də
	ध 			dhə
	न  			ɳə
	प 			pə  
	फ 			phə
	ब 			bə
	भ 			bhə
	म			mə
	य 			yə
	र 			rə
	ल 			lə
	व			və/wə
	श 			ʃə
	ष 			ʃə
	स 			sə
	ह 			hə
	क्ष 			kʃə
	स्र 			trə
	ज्ञ 			gyə
	श्र  			ʃrə

Phonemically some letters have become irrelevant in Hindi. The letter ऋ is clearly pronounced as रि (ri), though it is maintained in the spelling. The substitution of ऋ in रि is not allowed. Similarly ष is irrelevant phonemically, it is irrelevant phonemically, it is pronounced as श ‘ʃ’ but in spelling it is to be written.

Examples of Grapheme-Phoneme-Misfit & Guidelines for correct pronunciation:

1. In Hindi writing system every consonant letter has inherent अ (ə). But अ has the following pronunciations: as (ə)
1. Initially it is pronounced e.g. अपना, अलग
2. In syllable ending it is not pronounced, e.g. आम (am)
3. It is pronounced, if there in cluster in the final position, e.g. दंड, अन्न etc.
4. अ before ह (as in words like शहर, नहर, कहर) is pronounced as (E). In the word यह it is pronounced as (ĕ). In वह is pronounced as (ǒ),
2. ऐ and औ are main vowels, but before य and व they are pronounced as diphthongs i.e. (əi, əu). e.g. भैया नैया कौवा.
3. Visarg (:) is pronounced as (h) e.g. प्रातः, but medially it is not pronounced as in दुःख is pronounced as क्ष (kʃ).
4. क्ष as in कक्ष (kəkʃə) and is pronounced as ग्य (gyə), as in ज्ञान. But medially it is pronounced as ग्य (ggy) as in विज्ञान (viggyan).

पंक, पंखा, गंगा, कंधा 
[pəŋh, pəŋkha, gəŋga, kəŋgha] 

चंचल, वांधित, गंजा, झंझा 
[cəɲcəl, vəɲchIʈ, gəɲja, jhəɲjha] 

घंटी, डंठल, डंडा, पंढरपुर
ghəɳʈI, ɖəɳʈəl, ɖəɳɖa, pəŋɖhərpur

दंत, पंथ, बंद, धंधा
dənʈ, pənth, bənd, dhəndha

संरचना, संलाप, संसद  
sənrecna, sənlap, sənsəd

संयम  [səīyəm]

परंपरा, गुंफन, कंबल, खंभा
pərəmpa, gumphən, kəmbal, khəmbha

5. anaswer (ः) may be pronounced as :
1. ड् (ŋ) before क, ख, ग, घ, ह þ, पंक पंखा गंगा कंधा (pəŋk, pəŋthə, gəŋgd, kəŋgha)
2. ञ् (ɲ) before च, छ, ज, झ, श (संशय) चंचल वांधित गंजा झंद्रा गंजा झंझा संशय (cəɲcəl, vaɲchIl, gəɲja, jhəɲjha)
3. ण् (ɳ) before ट, ठ, ड, ढ, गंटी डंटल डंडा पंढरपुर
4. न् (n) before त, थ, द, ध, र ल स (संसद) दंत पंथ बंद धंधा
5. म् (m) before प, फ, ब, भ, संरचना संलाप संसद
6. अइँ (əĨ) before य, e.g. संयम, परंपरा गुंफन कंबल खंभा
7. labiodental (m) before व e.g. संवाद (səmuəd).
8. for nasalization, if the matra is over the line, e.g. है नही (hȄ, nəhĨ)
6. In the word medial position if these is a conjunct and the second consonant is य, र, व the first consonant is pronounced as double, e.g.

अन्य (ənnyə),   चक्र (cəkkrə), अव्यय (əvvyə),  तत्व (tətwə). 

If the first consonant is aspirated stop, then pronunciation is unaspirated and aspirated, e.g. मध्य (məddhyə).

7. Final यी, ये are pronounced as ई (i) and ए (e), e.g. उतरदायी (uttardai), गाये (gə).
8. If the initial conjunct begins with स (as in स्थान, स्कूल etc.) the prophetic vowel I is added. (So pronounced as Isthan, Iskul)

This prophetic vowel is not added if the conjuncts are स्य स् स्ल स्व (as in स्याही स्रात स्लेट स्वाद the word शमशान in pronounced as शम्शान (ʃənʃan). (syahi, srot, slet, swad).

9. व is pronounced as labiodental continuant as in वह (vǒh), but it is pronounced as rounded semivowel (w) as in स्वाद (swad).

6. Direction for writing each grapheme:

अ  + ा	आ

इ  +   र् 	ई

उ  +  ु  	ऊ

 ऋ

ए  + े  	ऐ

अ  + ो  	ओ  

अ  + ौ  	औ   

अ  +  ं  	अं   

अ  +  ः  	अः

क्  	क  
ख् 	ख  
ग् 	ग
ध्  	ध
च्  	च   
ध्  	छ   
ज्  	ज  
इ  	झ  
ण्  	ण  
ल्  	ल  
व्  	व  
श् 	श  
ष्   	ष  
स्  	स  
क्ष्  	क्ष

7. Special features:

1. Every consonant letter includes the neutral vowel अ. If the diacritic mark below the letter known as halant is added, the vowel in deemed to be deleted, e.g.

	म  = mə 
	म्    =  m  

2. The name of the letter and the sound of the letter is the same. But in some regions they are pronounced differently also. For example, in Uttarpradesh क is pronounced as ‘ka’. In western Uttarpradesh and Haryan क is pronounced as & E.
3. The order of the letter in the alphabet is according to the pronunciation.
4. It is widely used in the country.
5. Different mātrās are used differently, some after the letter, some before the letter, some over the letter and some under the letter.
6. व has 2 pronunciation

 	(a) Labiodental continuent V, as in   वार्ता  
	(b) rounded semi-vowel as in  नाव  

7. र has 4 allographs.
8. Its letters take more space separate.
9. There is no separate letter for short ‘e’ and ‘o’ though they are used in Hindi dialects e.g.

In ‘अवधेष के हारे सकारे खडी ’ ‘ए’ is short.Similarly in लोहार, सुनार the pronunciation is short ‘o’.

10. Some letters are irrelevant for Hindi i.e. ड, ज्ञ, ष.

D. History of Devanagari:

Like all other Indian scripts (except Roman and Arabi-Persian), Devanagari has developed from Brahmin. The oldest available scripts in India are Brahmi (Written from left to right) and Kharosti (Written from right to left) Even other South Asian Scripts (Simhalese in Srilanka) Burmese in Myanmar, Thai in Thailand, Combodian in Kampuchia have developed from the southern branch of Brahmi.

1) Change of Script:

Some Muslim poets wrote Hindi in Persio-Arabic script. Examples of Amir Khusro and Malik Mohammed Jayasi have already been discussed earlier. Now that literature has already been transliterated into Devanagari.

2) Development of Script:

As discussed earlier, through different stages, Devanagari developed from Brahmi. In Devanagari, some letters have changed their shape.

Some letters were written differently before some time, it read the old texts, it is necessary to know the old forms:

	New form		Old form 

	अ   		+++   
	आ
	इ 
	ई 
	उ 
	ऊ
	ए
	ऐॆ
	ओ
	औ
	अं
	अः
	ख
	छ
	झ
	ण
	ध
	भ
	ल  

	Now-a-days त्र and त्र are in free variation. 

1. Deletion:

The letter ज्ञ is not used in Hindi words. Its place has been taken by anuswar (अनुस्वार), though it is being taught in Hindi alphabets.

2. Addition:

The letter ऑ is added for writing English loan words. e.g. डाँक्टर Nukta is also added in some letters like क, ख, ग, ज, फ for denoting foreign sounds now assimilated in High Hindi e.g. इश्क खाना गम जोर फर्क.

3. Selection of one among many

Now-a-days all the books are written in new letters. However, old books have the old (now absolute) letters.

3. Script Reform/Revival:

1. Reasons:

	Many clusters have been simplified as:  

		Old			New 

		ऋ़ 			क्रम  

	Some are in free variation Both are used as :

		क्त 			क्त
		ध्व  			धध्व
		ध्वितीय 			दुवितीय
		जिहन  			चिहून
		बहन  			बहून

Hindi typewriters do not have the letters ञ, आँ. So both were replaced by अं (anuswar). But now-a-days because of computers, many old conjuncts are being used.

Because computers have accommodated many letters and conjuncts, so many purists especially, Sanskrit scholars insist on writing in the old form.

2. People/Groups:

Many newspapers do not use Chandrabindu +++, They replace it by anuswar.

Central Hindi Directorate (Ministry of Human Resource Development) pioneered in script reform as well as spelling reforms. It is really unfortunate that many Hindi scholars did not adopt it.

E. Punctuations:

Hindi uses all the punctuation marks as used in English with the exception that full stop (.) is replaced by (|) known as purna viram. Many Hindi newspapers use even full stop (.). Other punctuation marks are:

1. , alpa viram
2. ; ardha viram
3. ? Prashna bodhak cihna
4. ! Vismyadi bodhak cihna
5. - Yojak cihna
6. ___ nirdesh/vivram bodhak cihna
7. “ “ Uddharan cihna
8. .. x x x Lopa cihna
9. o/. laghava cihna.

as in  Dr.R.P. Verma, डा. रा.प्र. वर्मा| .  

The distribution of these punctuation marks is more or less the same as in English, with some exceptions.

In poetry, Hindi uses purna viram ___ single as well as double (1 and 11). They can be called the Chanda alpaviram and Chanda purna viram, because they are used only in poetry, e.g.

	स्रवन  मुकर  कुडल  लसतद मुरव सुरवमा एकत्र |  
	सासि  समीप सोहत मनो स्रवन  मकर नक्षत्र | |  

I. Numerals:

Hindi has its own numerals as:

० १ २ ३ ४ ५ ६ ७ ८ ९ १० c, d and e are having some other forms also - +++++.

The constitution of India has prescribed International forms of numbers as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10.

G. Written and Printed Scripts:

In Devanagari this kind of difference is not found.

H. Calligraphy:

Calligraphy is more developed in Urdu or Arabic Script. In Devanagari also some forms are having different shapes, as ऊँ, ऊँ, होइम, होम.

It can be seen in graphological translation also, in which the letters of the source language are written in Devanagari in such a manner that they look like the letters of the source language, e.g. बांगला.