A . Phonetic Structure

1. Initiation

Gujarati language is the official language of Gujarat State. It is an Indo-Aryan language. The speech sounds described in this section are of the standard variety spoken in the area extending from Vadodara and its environs north western to and including Amadavad.

2. Phonation

For the purpose of describing the speech sounds of Gujarat language the different mouthparts involved in pronunciation are given below. They are divided into different parts for the convenience and understanding of the mechanism of Speech Sounds of Gujarati.

The roof of the mouth is divided into three parts:
i) The teeth-ridge, (alveolar-ridge) the area that is just behind  the teeth, 
ii) The hard palate, the area which is just behind the teeth-ridge
and extending to the middle of the roof and 
iii) The soft palate, (velum) is up to the end of the roof found behind the hard palate. 
      
	Pharynx is a cavity down below the mouth in the throat.    
 
	Larynx is the upper part of the wind pipe and is located below the pharynx.

Epiglottis lies above the larynx. It is a fleshy part to close the windpipe while eating and has no function in speech production.

The lip-like vocal folds are situated in the larynx. The space between the two vocal folds are called the glottis. When the vocal cords are kept apart the air passes freely through the glottis causing no vibration of the vocal folds and thus producing voiceless sounds. When vocal folds are brought together to nearly close the passage the air forces itself through glottis causing vibration of the vocal folds and thus producing voiced sounds.

The tongue is divided mainly into three parts;

i)  which lies opposite to the soft palate is the back of the tongue,
ii) which lies opposite to the hard palate is the front of the tongue and 
iii) which lies between the two is the center of the tongue. 

The part which is opposite the teeth-ridge is the blade of the tongue. The extreme end of the tongue is the tip of the tongue. The blade and the tip together are called apex.

The tongue is the most flexible part of all the speech organs, Its different parts can touch different parts of the roof of the mouth as well as teeth. It is capable of spreading out laterally as well as contracting sideways.

The lips can be rounded or spread out and thus can change the shape of the oral cavity.

3. Articulation

a) Complex Articulation/Manner of Articulation

The sounds produced by the speech organs and used in a language are referred to as the speech sounds. These speech sounds mainly are divided into two broad categories viz. vowels and consonants mainly based on their manner and place of articulation. The manner of articulation results into voicing vs. unvoicing, aspiration vs. unaspiration, oral vs. nasal and continuants with audible friction and without any audible friction and thus, a speech sound may be voiced, unvoiced, aspirated, unaspirated, oral, nasal, etc.

b) Co-articulation

i. The co-articulation includes places of articulation known as secondary articulation also. It involves Labialization, Palatalization, Velarization, Pharyngealization, Glottalization etc.. The speech sounds thus produced are referred to as labial, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar, glottal etc..

ii. Double articulation

2. SPEECH SOUNDS

The speech sounds as mentioned above are the sounds produced by the speech organs and used in a language. These speech sounds mainly are divided into two broad categories viz. vowels and consonants.

2.1 VOWELS:

Speech sounds produced without closing or obstructing the air streams in anyway but modifying the shape of the oral cavity of the mouth with the help of the tongue and the lips are vowels.

TYPES OF VOWELS:

The soft palate is raised to close the velum for producing the oral vowels.           
The soft palate is lowered for producing the nasal vowels.

Depending upon the length of time a particular shape of the oral cavity is maintained; the vowels can be divided into short or long vowels.

For the purpose of vowel description three points are referred to on the horizontal axis indicating the position of the tongue, viz. front, central and back.

On the vertical axis the height of the tongue is divided on a four point scale viz. high, mid, low mid and low.

The lips assume two positions while producing vowel sounds. They can be either spread or rounded, producing unrounded and rounded vowels respectively.

2.2 CONSONANTS

In the production of the consonants, there is some obstruction of the air stream and this obstruction is caused by one of the speech organs. The obstruction may be complete (closure) or partial. The consonants are classified on the basis of how and where the air stream is obstructed.

TYPES OF CONSONANTS:

STOPS:

The stop consonants are produced by closing the air passage completely at some point in the speech tract. The air is compressed behind this point due to the pressure from the lungs. The compressed air is released abruptly when the speech organs move to produce the next sound. This abrupt release produces an explosive sound which is called a stop consonant. If a heavy puff of air accompanies such release, the stop is called aspirated stop.

AFFRICATES:

When a stop consonant is produced, the release of contact is abrupt. If, instead, the speech organ in contact is withdrawn slowly, the release of air will be gradual and there is no explosion. Here the closure will be followed by friction. The consonant thus produced is called the affricate.

FRICATIVES:

The partial closure of the air passage causes friction. During the partial closure, the air passage is narrowed at some point and the air compressed by the pressure from the lungs escapes out with a hissing sound. The consonants so produced are called fricatives.

VOICED AND VOICELESS:

If, during the production of a sound, the vocal cords are close and are vibrated by the air passing through, that sound is called a voiced sound. If the vocal cords are wide apart and are not vibrated that sound is called a voiceless sound. The stops and fricatives can be either voiced or voiceless. The following sounds are commonly voiced in the languages of the world. But they can also be voiced.

NASALS:

During the production of the nasal sounds, the oral passage is closed completely at some point and the air passes through the nasal passage. The soft palate is lowered to keep the nasal passage open.

LATERALS:

Some consonants are produced by having the tip of the tongue touch the alveolar region/hard palate in such a way that though there is complete closure in the middle of the mouth, a passage for the air to escape is left open on one side or both sides of the tongue. The sounds for which the air stream goes out through the opening at the sides of the tongue are called laterals.

FLAPS:

In the production of a flap sound the tip of the tongue is curled back and is brought forward suddenly so that it hits the palate at once and settles down.

SEMI-VOWELS:

The semi-vowels are half-vowels and half-consonants in the sense that they share certain characteristics of vowels and certain of consonants. In the production of these sounds the speech organs take the position to produce on sound fairly but move immediately to a position to produce another. Because of this articulatory feature, the semi-vowels are also called glides.

The consonants may be further classified on the basis of the articulation.

BILABIAL: The bilabial consonants are articulated with two lips.

LABIO-DENTAL: The labio-dental consonants are produced by pressing the lower lip against the upper teeth.

DENTAL: The dental consonants are produced by pressing the tip of the tongue against the upper teeth.

ALVEOLAR: The alveolar consonants are produced by pressing the tip of the tongue against the alveolar region.

RETROFLEX: The retroflex consonants are produced by curling the tip of the tongue back and pressing it against the hard palate.

PALATAL: The palatal sounds are produced by pressing the front of the tongue against the hard palate.

VELAR: The velar sounds produced by pressing the back of the tongue against the soft palate.

UVULAR: The uvular sounds are produced by the vibration of the Uvula.

SPEECH SOUNDS OF GUJARATI

The description of the speech sounds of Gujarati (phonemes) noted below are based primarily on Articulatory Phonetics. They are classified into vowels and consonants.

VOWELS:

PHONETIC CHARTS :

CHART NO. 1. ORAL VOWELS:

CHART NO. 2.

NASALIZED VOWELS:

CHART NO. 3. MURMERED VOWELS:

The vowels in Gujarati can be classified on five criterion. These are;

i) Part of the tongue:On the basis of the part of the tongue raised; front, central or back and involved in its production, a vowel is called either front, central or back.

ii)Tongue Height: In producing any vowel, the part of the tongue involved can be raised to the maximum height permissible and, it can remain in position as close to the floor of the mouth possible. These vowels are known as High Vowels and Low Vowels respectively. In between the two extremes on can have a number of intermediary levels. In Gujarati, in addition to the High and Low, there are four more levels, viz. Lower-high, Higher-mid, Mean-mid and Lower mid.

iii) Lip position: At the time of the release of the outgoing air, the lips remain spread or rounded in various degrees. These vowels are known as unrounded or rounded vowels, respectively.

iv) Position of the velum: The velum can be in a raised position allowing the air stream to pass through the oral cavity only, or in a lowered position allowing the air-stream to pass through both the cavities, viz. oral and nasal. These vowels are known as oral or nasalized, vowels, respectively.

v) Vibrations of the vocal cords/folds: The vibrations of vocal folds/cords results in to two sets of vowels;

vi) a) Murmered Vowels: In the production of a murmured vowel " there is a comparatively free passage for the air stream through the posterior position of the vocal folds where they are kept apart. The rest of the length of the vocal folds is set in vibration. More quantity of air is required in the production of breathy voice than inplain voice." (Peri B: 1972, p 12). v) Voiced Vowels: The rest of the vowels in Gujarati are produced with ordinary voice. In the prodection of these vowels (nasalized or purely oral) the whole length of the vocal folds vibrate producing ordinary voice.

CHART NO. 4

VOWELS:

                                                              	  VOWELS


                               ORAL                                                			NASALIZED

      VOICED                               	MURMURED                	(i:N, EN, aN, AN,  u:N, uN, ON)                  
      (ordinary)                                       	   (breathy)                                            

(i:, i, e, E, a, A, u:, u, o, O)  	(i:H, eH, EH, aH, AH, u:H, oH, OH)                                             

Note: The number of vowel phonemes could be reduced almost to a quarter if one analyzes nasalized and murmured vowels as a combination of vowel + nasalization ( V + N ), and vowel + murmur ( V + R ). This procedure, how ever , is not followed in this typological analysis.

Given below are the Gujarati vowels with examples:

SIMPLE VOWELS/VOICED:

Front Vowels:

[ i: ] A front high unrounded vowel similar to Hindi 'i:' in 'i:Swar' It occurs in all positions in a word.

[ i ] A front lower-high unrounded vowel. It is similar to Hindi sound ' i ' in inAm . prize.' It occurs in all the positions in a word.

[ e ] A front higher-mid unrounded vowel. It is similar to Hindi sound ' e ' in ek 'one'. It occurs in all the positions in a word.

[ E ] A front lower-mid unrounded vowel is similar to Hindi ' E ' in ElAn ' announcement '. It occurs in all the positions in a word.

CENTRAL VOWELS:

[ a ] A central mean-mid unrounded vowel similar to Hindi ' a ' in anAj ' grains '

[ A ] A central low unrounded vowel is similar to hindi 'A ' in ArAm ' comfort, rest '.

BACK VOWELS:

[ u: ] A back high rounded vowel similar to Hindi ' u: ' in u:n ' wool '. It occurs in all the positions of a word.

Initial:	u:n	' wool '
	u:bh	' stand '
Medial:	khu:No	' corner '
	dhu:L	' dust '
Final:	lu:	' sun-stroke '
	vadhu:	' bride '

[ u ] A back lower-high rounded vowel. It is similar to Hindi ' u ' in ubAl iye ' please boil '. It occurs in all the positions in a word.

[ o ] A back higher-mid rounded vowel is similar to Hindi ' o ' in or ' towards '. It occurs in all the positions in a word.

[ O ] A back lower-mid rounded vowel is similar to Hindi ' O ' in Orat ' woman '. It occurs in all the positions in a word, but has very few words in a word final position.

NASALIZED VOWELS:

All the vowels noted above can be nasalized except [ i ], [ e ] and [ o ]. The seven nasalized vowels found in Gujarati are given below with a few examples.

[ i:N ] It is the nasalized counter part of [ i: ] described earlier. It is known as a front high unrounded nasalized vowel and is similar to Hindi [i:N ] in gai:N ' they went(fem.)

[ EN ] It is a counter part of [ e ] and is known as a lower-mid unrounded nasalized vowel. It is similar to Hindi sound [ EN ] in jAyEN ' you go (hon.)'. It occures in all the positions in a word.

[ aN ] It is a counter part of [ a ] and is known as a central mean-mid unrounded nasalized vowel. It is similar to the Hindi ' aN ' in aNk ' number' It does not occur in the word final position.

[ AN ] It is a nasalized counter part of [ A ] ans is known as a central low unrounded nasalized vowel. It is similar to Hindi ' AN ' in ANkh ' eye '. It occurs in all the positions in a word.

[ u:N ] It is a nasalized counter part of [ u: ] and is known as a back high rounded nasalized vowel. It is similar to Hindi ' u:N ' in u:NcA " high ' It does not occur in word final position.

[ uN ] It is a nasalized counter part of [ u ] and is known as a back lower high rounded nasalized vowel. It does not occur in word initial position.

[ ON ] It is a nasalized counter part of [ O ] and is known as a back lower-mid rounded nasalized vowel. It is similar to Hindi ' ON ' in striON kA " of the ladies/women. It does not occur in word initial position.

MURMURED VOWELS:

The following Gujarati vowels have the murmured counterparts:

i:, e, E, a, A, u:, o, and O, viz. i:H, eH, EH, aH, AH, u:H, oH and OH. In the production of murmured vowels more quantity of air is required than in oral vowels.

"These vowels have a marginal use in Gujarati. These sounds occur in only a few words. A tendency to pronounce the murmured vowels without any murmur quality is seen in present day language. "( It seems that the addition of murmur quality was a stylistic variation during the 'Pandit yug' in Gujarati literature when the so called 'purity ' in language was emphasized more)".

These vowels do not occur in word final position. Given below are a few words showing the distribution of these words.

CONSONANTS:

The Gujarati consonantal phonemes are given below in terms of their manner and place of articulation.

CHART NO. 5: CONSONANTS

The number of consonants could be reduced almost to a quarter if one analyzes aspirated stops as a combination of stop + aspiration , e.g. [ t + h = th ]. But this procedure is not followed here. Further the [ z ] sound has a marginal value in Gujarati as it occurs only in a few words, mostly borrowed/loan words. In such words, also, this sound functions as a diaphone, i. e. ' z ' may be pronounced either / z / or / j / .

STOPS:

Gujarati has 16 stops, viz. 4 unaspirated voiced, 4 unaspirated voiceless, 4 aspirated voiced and 4 aspirated voiceless.

[ k ] It is an unaspirated voiceless velar stop similar to Hindi ' k ' in kal ' tomorrow '. It occurs in all the positions in a word.

[ kh ] This sound is an aspirated counter part of [ k ]. It is known as aspirated voiceless velar stop and is similar to Hindi ' kh ' in khargosh ' rabbit '. It occurs in all the positions in a word.

[ g ] This is a voiced counter part of [ k ]. It is known as unaspirated voiced velar stop. It is similar to Hindi ' g ' in 'gi:t ' song '. It occurs in all the positions in a word.

[ gh ] It is the aspirated counter part of the sound [ g ], and the voiced counter part of [ kh ]. It is known as an aspirated voiced velar stop and is similar to the Hindi ' gh ' in ghar ' house '. It occurs in all the positions in a word.

[ T ] This sound is known as unaspirated voiceless retroflex stop and is similar to the Hindi ' T in TamATar ' rtomato '. It occurs in all the positions in a word.

[ Th ] This is the counter part of [ T ] and is known as aspirated voiceless retroflex stop. It is similar to the Hindi ' Th ' in Thokar ' stumbling '. It occurs in all the positions in a word.

[ D ] This is a voiced counter part of [ T ] and is known as an unaspirated voiced retroflex stop. It is similar to the Hindi ' D ' in DAl ' branch '. It does not occur intervocally and is in free variation with flap [ R ] in word final position.

[ Dh ] This sound is the aspirated counter part of [ D ] and is known as aspirated voiced retroflex velar stop. It is similar to the Hindi ' Dh ' in Dhol ' drum '. It occurs in all the positions in a word.

[ t ] It is an unaspirated voiceless dental stop and is similar to the Hindi sound ' t ' in ti:r 'arrow '.It occurs in all the positions in a word.

[ th ] This is an aspirated counter part of [ t ] and is known as an aspirated voiceless dental stop. It is similar to the Hindi 'th ' in thAli: " plate '. It occurs in all the positions of a word.

[ d ] It is the voiced counter part of [ t ]. It is known as an unaspirated voiced dental stop and is similar to the Hindi sound ' d ' in dayA ' mercy '.

[ dh ] It is the aspirated counter part of [ d ] and is known as an aspirated voiced dental stop. This sound is similar to the Hindi sound ' dh ' in dhu:l ' dust'. It occurs in all the position in a word.

[ p ] This sound is known as an unaspirated voiceless bilabial stop and is similar to the Hindi sound 'p' in pal ' moment ' It occurs in all the positions in a word.

[ ph ] It is an aspirated counter part of [ p ] and is known as an aspirated voiceless bilabial stop. It is similar to the Hindi sound 'ph' in phal 'fruit'.

This sound has labio-dental variation [ f ] with a marginal value in certain borrowed words. For example;

This sound occurs in all the positions in a word.

[ b ] It is the voiced counter part of [ p ]. This sound is known as an unaspirated voiced bilabial stop and is similar to the Hindi 'b' in bArah 'twelve'. It occurs in all the positions in a word.

[ bh ] It is the aspirated counter part of [ b ]. It is known as an aspirated voiced bilabial stop. It is similar to the Hindi 'bh' in bhArat 'India'. It occurs in all the positions in a word.

2.1.1.2.b: AFFRICATES:

In Gujarati there are four palatal affricates viz. [c], [ch], [j] and [jh] which can be voiced or voiceless and aspirated or unaspirated.

[ c ] This sound is described as an unaspirated voiceless palatal affricate. It is similar to the Hindi 'c' in cAr 'four' and occurs in all the positions in a word.

[ ch ] It is the aspirated counter part of [ c ] and is known as an aspirated voiceless palatal affricate. It is similar to the Hindi sound 'ch' in chAtA 'umbrella'. It occurs in all the positions of a word.

[ j ] It is the voiced counter part of [ c ] and is described as an unaspirated voiced palatal affricate. It is similar to Hindi ' j ' in jA ' g' and occurs in all the positions in a word.

[ jh ] It is the aspirated counter part of [ j ] and is known as an aspirated voiced palatal affricate. This sound is similar to the Hindi 'jh' in jhi:l 'lake'. It occurs in all the positions in a word.

2.1.1.2.b: NASALS:

In Gujarati there are five nasal sounds viz. bilabial [m], dental [n], retroflex [N], palatal [nG] and velar [nY].
[ m ] This sound is known as voiced bilabial nasal and is similar to the Hindi 'm' in mAlA 'garland'. It occurs in all the positions in a word.

[ n ] This sound is known as a voiced velar nasal and is similar to the Hindi 'n' in nAk 'nose'. It occurs in all the positions in a word.

[ N ] This sound is known as a voiced retroflex flapped nasal. It does not occur in word initial position.

[ N ] This sound is known as a voiced palatal nasal. It is similar to the Hindi 'N' in maNc 'stage'. It occurs before palatal stops only.

[ N ] This sound is known as a voiced velar nasal. It is similar to the Hindi 'N' in gaNgA 'Ganges'. It occurs before velar stops.

2.1.1.2.d: FRICATIVES:

The fricative sounds of Gujarati are; voiceless alveolar slit fricative [s], voiceless grooved palatal fricative [sh], voiceless alit retroflex [s] and voiced glottal fricative [h].

[ s ] This sound is known as a voiced alveolar slit fricative. It is similar to the Hindi 's' in sAt 'seven'. It occurs in all the positions in word.

[ sh ] It is known as a voiceless grooved palatal fricative and is similar to the Hindi 'sh' in sher 'lion'. It occurs in all the positions in a word except in a cluster where C2 is a retroflex consonant.

[ S ] This sound is known as a voiceless slit retroflex fricative and is similar to the Hindi 'S' in rASTra 'nation'. It occurs before a retroflex consonant.

[ h ] This sound is known as a voiced glottal fricative and is similar to the Hindi 'h' in hAr 'garland, defeat'. It occurs in all the positions in a word.

2.1.1.2.e: FLAPS:

There are two flap sounds in Gujarati viz. [r] a voiced alveolar flap and [R] a voiced retroflex flap.

[ r ] It is known as a voiced velar flap. It is little different than Hindi 'r', in the sense, that in Hindi the 'r' sound is known as trill. This sound occurs in all the positions in a word.

[ R ] This sound is known as a voiced retroflex flap. It is similar to the Hindi 'R' in gARi: 'train'. It does not occur in a word initial position and in a cluster. It can occur before a juncture but not after a juncture. It is in free variation with [ D ] in word final position.

2.1.1.2.f: LATERALS:

There are two lateral sounds in Gujarati viz., a voiced alveolar lateral [l] and a voiced retroflex lateral [L].

[ l ] This sound is known as a voiced alveolar lateral. It is similar to the Hindi sound 'l' in lAl 'red'. It occurs in all the positions in a word.

[ L ]: This sound is known as a voiced retroflex lateral. It does not occur in word initial position and in duplication, i.e. as LL.

2.1.1.3: SEMI-VOWELS:

In Gujarati language there are three semi-vowels, viz., bilabial [w], labio-dental [v] and palatal [y]. The sounds [w] and [v] are the consonantal counterparts of vowel [u:], and the sound [y] of vowel [i:].

[w] is known as a voiced bilabial semi-vowel. It occurs in CwV and Vw in a word and between two vowels it varies freely. It does not occur in word initial position.

[v] sound is known as voiced labio dental semi-vowel and occurs in word initial position before a vowel, semi-vowel or [r]. It is in free variation with the sound [w] when it occurs in between two vowels.

[y] sound is known as a voiced palatal semi-vowel. This sound occurs in all positions in a word.

3.1.1: GUJARATI PHONEMICS

In Gujarati there are 36 consonants and 24 vowels totaling to 60 speech sounds but all are not functionally significant. These speech sounds may be grouped under its various phonemes (the functionally significant groups of sounds) on the basis of its distribution (occurrence in the same position with different function of meaning) (such speech sounds are known as phonemes), similarity (complementary distribution) (such speech sounds are known as allophones) and identity of function (serves to prevent the grouping together the disperate elements on the basis of complementary distribution and similarity of sound or meaning alone). A brief sketch of Gujarati phonemes, their allophones, their occurrences and distribution in a word are given below.

There are 57 phonemes in Gujarati, viz., 32 consonants and 25 vowels (10 simple/oral, 7 nasalized and 8 murmured). The number of phonemes can be reduced if one analyzes it as 1) Nasalized Vowels as a combination of vowel plus nasalization [V = ~], ii) Murmured vowels as a combination of vowel plus murmur [V + H], and iii) Aspirated stops as a combination of stop plus aspiration [C + h]. This economical procedure however, is not followed here.

3.1.1.a: GUJARATI PHONEMES:

Table No 1

Simple Vowels (10)

Table No. 2

Nasalized Vowels (7)

Table No. 3

Murmured Vowels T(8)

Table No. 4

Consonants (32)

Table No. 5

Simple vowels (Phonemes and their Allophones)

Table No. 6

Nasalized Vowels

Table No. 7

Murmured Vowels

Table No. 8

Consonants

Table No. 9

Semivowels

Vowel Sequences in a word

Sequences or combination of two or three vowel sounds occur in Gujarati words. However sequence of V1V2 with /a/ as V2 does not occur. Barring that, vowel combination has a set pattern. The following examples will reveal this pattern.

Sequence of three vowels always occur across morpheme boundaries. The permissible vowel sequences are:

Clusters :

Gujarati has its own as well as loan clusters, generally borrowed from Sanskrit, Persian and English. These can occur initially, medially or in a word final position. Generally initial clusters are composed of two different consonants viz. C1C2. Three cluster consonants are rare in this language.

The clusters of two consonants found in word initial position, consist of;

In word medial position:

The clusters in word initial position found only in English loan words are;

Given below are the permissible sequences of C1C2C3 occurring in word initial and medial position, where each of these consonants is a different one.

4. GUJARATI GRAPHIMICS :

The Gujarati Script is related to the Devanagari Script with which Sanskrit, Hindi and Marathi are written. In this Script, the series of letters/graphemes represent a series of syllables consisting of either a vowel syllable or a consonant vowel syllable. It is written from left to right. The characters/letters /graphemes are formed with predominately downward strokes of the pen. These letters are either with a vertical line/stroke or are rounded. For example;

Vowel graphemes represent vowel syllables in whatever position they occur in words.

Consonant graphemes represent a syllable consisting of a consonant and the vowel ‘a’ known as the ‘inherent vowel.’ This vowel may be cancelled by writing a stroke ( ) at the foot of a consonant grapheme. Given below are vowel graphemes with their corresponding phonemes and allograph (matra) which may be added to a consonant grapheme to represent a syllable consisting a consonant and the primary vowel represented by that allograph.

In addition to these there are two more graphemes for two vowel combinations and have two allographs as well. They are;

C Morphology (word structure) of Grammatical Classes:

A grammatical Class means a class of words or stems sharing a pattern of behaviour in inflection or in syntax or in both. The words/stems which follow a pattern of usage but do not follow any other pattern may be described as belonging to a grammatical class.

Nouns: Nouns in Gujarati are capable of taking gender and number markers. Though all nouns do not take overt gender and number markers, on the basis of the ability of taking gender-number markers, nouns in Gujarati can be variables/paired/marked and invariables/unpaired/unmarked.

Marked Nouns: Marked nouns show overt gender, number and case markers in all the forms. Some nouns show three-way opposition in gender, others show a two-way opposition in gender or show only one gender suffix.

For example:

Unmarked Nouns: All other nouns form unmarked nouns. These nouns can be further sub-divided into countables or uncountables depending upon whether they are capable of following a numeral or a number suffix. Both these divisions, however, can take the case marker {e}.

While a PP cannot follow an adjective, it can follow a noun/pronoun/
The adjective can occur in predicative construction also as in   
chokr-o sAr-o che    ‘ the boy is good’.

ghar ke dukAn-nuN kAm              ‘work of the house or the shop’
ghar-e ke dukA-ne nathi:               ‘is not at home/in the house or in the shop’
ii)  When a PP follows a determined noun in the mas. gender, the marked adjectives functioning as
the determiners are suffixed to a determined noun, the adjectives show agreement in a different manner.

sAr-A ghar-mAN che                       ‘is in the good house/family’
sAr-e ghar-e/ghEr che                     ‘is in the good house/family’
sAr-A  chokrA-nUN                         ‘of good boy’
y6sAr-e  chokr-e karyuN                      ‘good boy did it’

               R    +/-  {S1/2}   Where as S1/2 stands for gender-number.
                            {S3   }    Where as  S3 stands for case markers. 

  i) Masculine sg. Noun in pre-pause position:
                       sAr-o  chokr-o   ‘good boy’        pel-o chokr-o   ‘that boy’
                                     
   ii) Feminine nouns:
                       sAr-i: chokr-i:/o   ‘good girl/s’   pel-i: chokr-i:/o      ‘that/those girl/s
                                      
    iii) Neutral sg. Nouns in pre-pause position:   
                       sAr-uN chokr-uN  ‘a good child’   pel-uN  cgokar-uN ‘that child’

    iv) Masculine/neuter nouns in sg, and mas. pl. nouns with PP:
        sAr-A chokr-A-nuN         ‘of that good boy’
        pel-A chokr-A-nuN           ‘of that boy’  
        sAr-A makAn-nuN            ‘of a good house (neut.)’
        pel-A makAn-nuN             ‘of that house’
        sAr-A chokr-A-o-nuN        ‘of good boys’
        pel-A chokr-A-o-nuN         ‘of those boys
    v) Neuter pl. nouns:  
        sAr-AN  makAn-o-nuN     ‘of good houses’
        pel-AN  makAn-o-nuN     ‘of those houses’

 vi) Mas./neut. Sg. Nouns with case suffix: 
              sAr-e chokr-e  karyuN     	‘the good boy did’        
               pel-e chokr-e  karyuN     	‘that boy did’      
               sAr-e ghEr                      	‘at good house’         
               pel-e ghEr                      	‘at that  house’                                     
Possessive forms: The possessive (p) forms of pronouns functions as variable adjectives and as such designated as pronominal adjectives.

     	R  +  Sp  +  S1/2 or 	S3
                   mAr-o/i:/uN/A/AN     ‘my, mine mas./fem./neut./mas. pl/neut.pl.’
                   mAr-e karwuN che    ‘I want to do’
                   mAr-e joi:e che          ‘I want (it)’

          	   R  +Spl.  +  S1/2 or S3
                     cAlt-o chokr-o            ‘walking boy’ 
                     cAlt-AN choker-AN   ‘walking children’
                     cAlt-e chokr-e             ‘walking boy (agentive)’
                      karel-uN kAm            ‘the work which was done’
                      karel-AN kAm(o)       ‘works which were done’ 
	    khAdhel-e hAth-e       ‘(with the) hands  with which was eaten’    

                             
   A pronoun in Gujarati can have the following morphological construction:
                        R  +/-   pl.  +/-    {      cm        }  where  cm  =  concord marker 
                                                   { Sp  +  S1/2}

  Interrogative Pronouns:
             1.  kON   ‘who’       Allomorphs:    kON    and   ko-
                 kON AwyuN      ‘who came’   
                 ko-nuN ghar       ‘whose house?’   ko-Ne karyuN  ‘who did it’ 
            2.  shun    ‘what’      Allomorphs:             Nil
                 shuN  thauN       ‘what happened?’

  Relative and Indefinite Pronouns:
           1.    je  ‘who’        je AwyuN    ‘who came’            jene joi:e  ‘who needs’
           2.    koi:  some’     koi: AwyuN ‘somebody came’  koi:ne joi:e ‘somebody needs it’
           3.    kashuN  ‘something’ (is a variable adj.)
           4.    kayN/i:N        ‘something’  and
           5.    kayNk/kai:Nk ‘weebit something’ are pronominals rather than pronouns.

Concord Marker (cm): The concord marker has three allomorphs: {EN ~ Ne ~ e}
occurring with
1st/2nd person sg., 3rd person sg.  and  3rd person pl. respectively.

             m-EN karyuN     ‘I did’                    t-EN karyuN   ‘you did ’
             te-Ne karyuN     ‘he/she did’             teo-e karyuN  ‘they did’

 Possessive Marker:  It has two allomorphs:

             1.  -n- occurs with 3rd  person  pronouns      te-n-uN ghar            ‘his/her house’
             2.   –AR- occurs elsewhere                          m-Ar-uN  kAm         ‘my work’
                                                                                   t-Ar-uN kAm           ‘your work’
                                                                                   am-AR-uN kAm      ‘our work’

 Gender Marker (S1/2): It has five allomorphs:

              1.  -o   mas. sg.                                             mAr-o bhAi:             ‘my brother’
              2.  -A   mas. pl.                                             mAr-A bhAi:o          ‘my brothers’
              3.  -i:    fem. (sg./pl)                                      mAr-i: bahen(o)       ‘my sister(s)’
              4.  -uN  neut. Sg.                                           mAr-uN chokruN     ‘my child’
              5.  –AN neut. Pl.                                            mAr-AN kAmo        ‘my works’  

                                                             
Verb: A verb in Gujarati could have the following morphological constructions:

          R  +/-  {C1 +/- C2}  +/-  {Tf       +    PS2      }   where     R   =  Root
                                                  {Tp/pr  +    S1/2     }   where    C1  =  Causative 1
                                                  {           +   PS2       }   where    C2  =  Causative  2                      
                                                  {           +   M/AS2 }    where    Tf   =  Future tense
                                                                          where     Tp/pr  =  Past Tense, Present  Imperfect ,
				where PS2   =  Person-number,  where  M/A  =  Mood/Aspect

      
samaj  :  samj-Aw   ‘understand  :  make/cause  to understand’
utar  :  utr-Aw         ‘descend  :   cause to descend’

b)	 Monosyllabic words having  A  >  a
          jAN  :jaN-Aw   ‘know  :   cause to know’       phAD  :  phaD-Aw  ‘tear  :  cause to tear’

c)	Monosyllabic words having  a  >  e
          maL  :  meL-aw   ‘meet  :  cause to meet         pher  :  pher-aw       ‘move  :  cause to  move’
d)	The final unvoiced retroflex stop of a monosyllable VR gets voiced before causative marker. Further, if such a VR has a  back closed vowel, it becomes a half-closed one, 
i.e.  >  D,  u  >  o
        T/tuT  :  toD-Aw  ‘break :  cause to break’     phAT  :  phaD-Aw   ‘tear  :  cause to tear’
        Causatives (C1/2):
        a) C1 has the following allomorphs:  i)-AD,  ii)  -(D)Aw  and  iii)  -aw

All  monosyllabic  VR1  ending in  /-s/  and  /-m/ take  /-AD/ as their causative marker.
      bEs  :  bEs-AD   ‘sit  :  cause to sit’     jam  :  jam-AD    eat  :  cause to eat’ 

i)    Other  VR1   take  /-(D)Aw/.  Both, primary and derived forms ending in  -w  take the full       form  /-DAw/  and others, in this group, take  /Aw/. 
       pi:  :  pi:-wDAw   ‘drink  :  cause to drink’  jo  :  jow-DAw      ‘see  :  cause to see’
       dar :  Dar-AW      ‘fear     :  cause to fear’   bhaN  :  bhaN-Aw  ‘learn  :  cause to learn’ 
ii)	VR2 taking  /-Aw/  as causative marker;
  samaj  :  sam-Aw  ‘ understand  :  cause to understand’  Tu:T  :  toD-Aw ‘break  :  cause to     break’
       jAN  :  jaN-Aw    ‘know  :  cause to know’  phAD  :  phaD-Aw        ‘tear  :  cause to tear’
iii)	VR2 taking  /-aw/  as causative marker.
        maL  :  meL-aw   ‘meet  :  cause to meet’   pher  :  pher-aw       ‘move  :  cause to move’ 

iv)	  b)  /-DAw/  is suffixed to form C2, which, now a days,  are rarely used in this  language.
        bEs-AD-Aw          ‘make someone to cause to sit’
        pi:w-DAw-DAw   ‘make someone to cause to drink’
        bhaN-Aw-DAw     ‘make someone to cause to teach’
        jaN-Aw-DAw        ‘make someone to cause to know’
        phaD-Aw-DAw     ‘make someone to tear’
        mEL-aw-DAw       ‘make someone to cause to meet’

A small group of VRs have two causative forms. Some of the examples are:
        khA  :  khaw-AD/khaw-DAw         ‘eat  :  cause to eat’
        dho   :  dhow-AD/dho-DAw           ‘wash  :  cause to wash’
        shi:kh  :  shi:kh-aw/shi:khw-AD     ‘learn  :  cause to teach’ 

Tenses:  Gujarati has basically three tenses viz., simple past (Tp), simple future (Tf) and present (Tpr.). Of these three, the Tpr. is indicated by a syntactical construction of a V + Aux. form. For e.g., 
        te cAle che     ‘he/she walks’                 huN cAluN chuN  ‘I walk’.  

This leaves only the simple Tp and simple Tf for morphological construction.
/-y-/ is the simple past tense (Tp) marker with three other allomorphs viz., /-t-/, /-dh-/, and /-Th-/. VR1 (derived forms) ending in front vowel and a central vowel take /-dh-/, copula takes /-t-/,  a group of monosyllabic VRs ending in vowel take /-Th-/ and remaining take /-y-/ as Tp marker. For e.g.;
          ha-t-uN    ‘was (neut.)’   ha-t-o          ‘was (mas.)’    ha-t-i:         ‘was (fem.)’
          li:-dh-uN  ‘took’             di:-dh-uN    ‘gave’              pi;-dh-uN   ‘drank’ 
          bE-Th-uN  ‘set’               pE-Th-uN  ‘entered’          nA-Th-uN  ‘ran away’
          kar-y-uN    ‘did’             Aw-y-uN    ‘came’              bol-y-uN     ‘spoke’

/-i:sh-/  and  /-sh-/  are the future tense markers. The Vs showing agreement with 1st person take /-i:sh-/ as Tf tense marker and rest take /-sh-/.

           huN kar-i:sh   ‘I will do’         ame kar-i:sh-uN       ‘we will do’
           tu  kar-sh-e     ‘you will do’    tame kar-sh-o            ‘you (pl.) will do’

Person (Number) (PS2): The V agrees in PS2 with the determined noun under certain conditions. In this, the point to 
be noted is that the manner of agreement is not identical for Vs having a morphological construction and Vs 
having syntactical construction,
i)  When the subject is in pl. the V (including an Aux.) shows a clear three-way agreement/opposition in person with the person of the subject. For e.g.;
        ame     Aw-i:e   ch-i:e         ‘we are coming’
        tame   Aw-o      ch-o           ‘you (pl.) are coming’
        teo      Aw-e      ch-e            ‘they are coming’
        ame    khA-i:sh-uN              ‘we will eat’
        tame   khA-sh-o                   ‘you (pl.) will eat’
        teo      khA-sh-e                   ‘they will eat’
ii)          When   the subject is in the sg. , a V having a morphological construction shows a two-way agreement/opposition in person, viz. 1st person vs. 2nd   and 3rd person.
         huN jo-uN     ‘I see’          tu ju-e   ‘you see’
                                                   te ju-e    ‘he/she sees’
Person Markers and Their Allomorphs:

              1st P     /-uN/   a)    {-uN}     occurring with Present sg. and  Future pl.
                                      b)   {-i:e}      occurring with present pl.
                                      c)    {0}          occurring with Future sg.
              2nd P    /-o/       a)   {-e}        both occurring with pl. forms. The person is not marked with sg.
                                       b)  {-o} 
              3rd P    /-e/        a)   {-e}         occurring with 3rd Ppl. Forms in Future.
                                       b)   {0}          occurring with 3rd Ppl. of Present ( sg. P is not marked).
      Examples:
                huN jA-uN ch-uN     ‘I go’                     ame ja-i:e ch-i:e     ‘we go’
                huN ja-i:sh                 ‘I will go’             ame ja-i:sh-uN        ‘we will see’
                tu jAy che                  ‘you go’                tame jA-o ch-o       ‘you (pl.) go’
                tu jashe                       ‘you will go’        tame ja-sh-o           ‘you (pl.) will go’
                te jAy che                   ‘he/she goes’        teo jAy che             ‘they are going’
                te jashe                        ‘he/she will go’   teo ja-sh-e               ‘they will go’
  
       Gender-Number Marker ( S1/2) has the following allomorphs;
                {-o}   mas. sg.       huN ga-y-o            ‘I went (mas.)’      te ga-y-o    ‘he went’
                {-i:)    fem.             huN ga-i:               ‘I went (fem.)’      te ga-i:        ‘she went’ 
                {-uN} neut. sg.                                                                  te ga-y-uN  ‘it went’
                {-A}   mas. pl.        ame ga-y-A           ‘we went’              teo ga-y-A   ‘they went’
                {-AN} neut. pl.       teo ga-y-AN         ‘they went             (mas. and fem./neut. pl.)’

         Copula: In Gujarati verbal forms and copular forms have  common  morphological   constructions with one 
major difference i.e. the copular forms are incapable of taking causative markers. The copula can also function as 
an auxiliary (aux.) verb. The copular R has completely supplative base forms before Tense markers. The following is 
the morphological construction of copula.
  
          R  +  {Tp  +  S1/2}    ha-t-A             ‘were’
                   {Tf  +   PS2}     hO-i:sh-uN     ‘(we) will be’
     {      +   PS2}     ch-i:e              ’(we) are’
 
          Root:  The copula  R  has three allomorphs:
                     i)   ch-     occurs before S2       
                                    chuN              ‘I am’              chi:e                      ‘we are’
                    ii)   ha-     occurs before Tp  marker /--t-/ and Tf  marker /-sh-/
                                             te  ha-t-o        ‘he was’           ame ha-t-A             ‘we were’
                                             tuN  ha-sh-e   ‘you shall be’  .teo ha-sh-e             ‘they shall be’
                   iii)  hO-  occurs before Tf marker.
                                             huN  hO-i:sh   ‘I shall be’       ame hO-i:sh-uN    ‘we shall be’ 

         Tense Marker (TM):  The supplative forms of copula in past and future take the tense markers,    whereas in
the case of present tense, the R itself indicates the tense. The Tp and Tf markers are identical with both the verbal 
form and copular form i.e.  Tp marker /-t-/ and  Tf    /-i:sh, -i:sh-, 
         -sh-/. 
Person-Number Marker (PS2):  PS2 marker is identical with both the verbal and copular forms.
                                              huN  khA-uN  ch-uN              ‘I eat’
                                              ame khA-i:e  ch-i:e                 ‘We eat’
                                              huN  khA-i:sh                          ‘I shall eat’
                                              ame  khA-i:sh-uN                    ‘We shall eat’
Gender-Number Marker (S1/2):  S1/2 marker also is identical with both the verbal and copular forms. 
                      Masculine                        Feminine                            Neuter
                  ha-t-o  :   ha-t-A                      ha-ti:                     ha-t-uN  :  ha-t-AN    ‘was  :  were’