X. CULTURE

A. LINGUISTIC EXPRESSION OF CULTURE

1. CLASSIFIER SYSTEMS

In Bangla the classificatory terms (indicating more than one relationship by a particular single term from the point of view of anthropology) are as follows:

	a)কাকা   
		kaka -   
			i) Father's younger brother(uncle)
			ii) Father's friend  
			iii) Elderly man of the society
			iv) Friend's father


	b)কাকিমা 
		kaki / kakima-
			 i) Father's younger brother's (uncle's) wife.
			ii) Father's friend's wife
			iii) Elderly woman of the society
			iv) Friend's mother. 

	c)দাদা             	
		  dada- 	
			i) Elder brother
			ii) Elderly man (young) of the society
			iii) Male teacher
			iv) Elder sister's husband (Brother-in-law)
			v) Father's father or uncle (restricted use)  

	d)দিদি             
		didi- 	
			i)  Elder sister
			ii)  Elderly woman (young) of the society.
			iii)  Female teacher
			iv)  Husband's elder sister (Sister-in-law) 

	e)বৌদি     
		boudi- 		
			i)  Elder brother's wife (Sister-in-law)
			ii)  Elderly married woman (young) of the society
			iii)  Friend's wife (less frequent use)

	f)মি/মাসিমা	
		 maʃi /maʃima- 	
			i)  Mother's sister (aunt)
			ii)  Friend's mother
			iii) Mother's friend/colleague Brother's or sister's mother-in-law.
			iv) Elderly woman of the society. 

	g)মেসো/মেসমশাম্প  
		 meʃo / meʃomɔʃai	
			i) Mother's sister's husband        
 			ii) Friend's father
			iii) Mother's friend's or colleague's husband
			iv) Brother's or sisters father-in-law
			v) Elderly man of the society (less frequent use)

	h)পিসি/পিসিমা  
		piʃi / piʃima- 	
			i) Father's sister
			ii) Elderly woman of the society
			iii) Father's Friend / colleague 

	I)পিসে/ পিসেমশাহন্দ্ব 
		piʃe / piʃemɔʃai-	
			i) Father's sister's husband
			ii) Elderly man of the society (less frequent use) 

	j)ভাম্প       	   
		bhāi -	
			i) Younger brother
			ii) Any (less known) young man of the society
      
	k)দাদু		 
		dādu-	
			i) Father's father / uncle
			ii) Mother's father
			iii) Any old man of the society. 

	l)দিদা             	  
		  dīda / dīdima -	
			i) Mother's mother / aunt 
			ii) Mother's mother's friend
 			iii) Any old woman of the society (Connected with mother's side) 
      
	m) জ্যাঠা/জ্যঠামশাই	 
		ʤæʈha / ʤæʈhamɔʃai -	
			i) Father's elder brother
			ii) Any  elderly man(older than father)  of the society
                                                			 
      
	n)জেঠিমা/জেঠি/জ্যাঠাইমা
		ʤeʈhai̯ma/ʤeʈhi/-	
			i) Father's elder brother's wife 
			ii) Any elderly woman (old like father's elder brother's wife) of the society. 

	o)বাবা  	  
		 bāba -		
			i) Father
			ii) Father-in-law (both sides)
			iii) Religious preacher / teacher in the society. 

	p)মা    		
		mā - 	
			i) Mother
			ii) Mother-in-law (both sides)
			iii) Religious preacher/ teacher(female) in the society.

	q)মামা      
		māma - 
			i) Mother's brother (Maternal uncle) 
			ii) Mother's friend / colleague
			iii) Elderly man of the society (Connected with mother's side)

	r)মামি-মামিমা       
		 māmi/māmima -	
			i) Mother's brother's wife			
			ii) Mother's friend's / colleague's wife
			iii) Elderly married woman of the society.

	s)ঠাকুমা    
		ʈhakūma - 	
			i) Father's mother / aunt
			ii) Father's mother's friend
			iii) Any old woman of the society (Connected with father's side).

2. KINSHIP ORGANIZATION AND TERMINOLOGY:

In the Bangla speech community we find all the three types of kinship organizations: (Consanguinal, Affinal and Ritual / social). The Kinship organization of the Bangla speech community is presented in as follows:

Paternal Side
Terms of Reference

	
	ঠাকুরদা ʈhakurda   "grand father"	 [consanguinal]
       	
	ঠাকুরমা/ঠাকুমা  ʈhakurma / ʈhakuma   "Grand Mother" [consanguinal]

	মা	ma  ‘mother’ 
    
	বাবা	baba  ‘father’    

a) Elder Ʒone		 
 	1. জ্যাঠামশাই/জ্যাঠা		dƷæʈhamɔʃai / dƷæʈha       	‘Elder brother’[Consanguinal]  
  	2. জ্যাঠাইমা/জ্যাঠিমা/জ্যেঠি  	dƷæʈhaima/dƷæʈima /dƷæʈhi	  (His wife) [Affinal]
				

b) Younger Ʒone    
  	1. কাকা/কাকু      	‘Younger brother’ [Consanguinal]          
  	2. কাকিমা/কাকি       	kakima/kaki (His wife) [Affinal]                
			
								 
c) Neutral Ʒone				        
	1. পিসিমা/পিসি         	piʃima / piʃi	 ‘Father’s Sister’[Consanguinal]            
	2. পিসে/পিসেমশাই    	piʃe / piʃemɔʃai (Her husband)  [Affinal]		
	3. ভাই                  	bhai̯  ‘Younger brother’ [Consanguinal]
	4. দাদা    		dada ‘Elder brother’ [Consanguinal]
	5. বৌদি  		boudi (his wife) [Affinal]	
	6. দিদি   		didi ‘Elder sister’ [Consanguinal]
	7. বোন     	 	bon ‘younger   sister’
	8. জামাইবাবু   	dƷamaibabu (Her husband)    [Affinal]
                                 				
			     
Maternal side	
Terms of Reference 	
        1. দাদু  	    	dadu ‘Grandfather’ [Consanguinal]	
        2. দিদিমা/দিদা    		dadima / dida ‘Grandmother’ [Consanguinal]
        3. মামা    	   	mama ‘Maternal uncle’		   
        4. মাসি/মাসিমা	 	maʃi / maʃima [Consanguinal]	  
        5. মামিমা/মাইমা/মামি      	‘Maternal aunt’ [Consanguinal]	
        6. মোসোমশাই/মেসো    	(His Wife)[Affinal]			 		                  
        7. দাদা  		dada ‘Elder brother’ [Consanguinal]		
        8. ভাই   		bha̯ ‘younger brother’ [Consanguinal]	
        9. বৌদি    		boudi (His wife) [Affinal]
        10. দিদি  		didi‘Elder sister’ [Consanguinal]	
        11. জামাইবাবু    		‘dƷama̯babu’ (Her husband) [Affinal]
        12.  বোন   		bon ‘younger sister’ [Consanguinal]
        13. ভগ্নীপতি    		‘bhognipoti’ (Her husband)  [Affinal]	

The Social or ritual kinship terminologies that are in practice in the Bangla speech community are the following :

3. BODY PARTS :

4. COLOUR TERMS :

5. PRONOUNS :

6. FAMILY ORGANIZATION AND SOCIAL STRATIFICATION :

In the Bangla speech community, the mode of family organization is essentially patrilineal. Though property can be inherited from both paternal and maternal sides, the title, which recognizes the family, is inherited from the paternal side. Traditionally, there was joint family system where the grandfather used to be the head of the family. The other members of the family, that is, the ego's wife, son / sons, daughter / daughters, daughter-in-laws and their children (i.e, the next generation) used to obey the decisions taken by the head of the family. In absence of this head, the eldest son of the family used to take up the responsibilities of the family.

But now-a-days, especially in metropolitan cities, there is nuclear family system where only two generations exist in a particular family.

At the level of social stratification, both the Hindus and Muslims have caste systems. Traditionally, the caste system was very much operative. There are castes like Brahmana, Vaidya, Kayastha, Vaisya, Mahisya, Namasudra, Tili, Barujibi, Sadgope, etc. among the Hindus. Among the Muslims there are two castes - Siya and Sunni. Previously, these caste systems were rigidly followed in the society and in social activities and functions. But now-a-days this stratification is gradually losing its ground. Different castes are getting merged with each other in various spheres of social activities. Still in case of marriages arranged by the family, there is a tendency to maintain such social stratification. Otherwise such divisions will become non existent day-by-day especially due to the increase of self-arranged inter-caste marriages. Further, in religious activities the importance of a particular caste viz., the Brahmana, is still existent.

7. ADDRESS AND REFERENCE SYSTEM :

In Bangla, the forms of addresses which are widely used are the following : In spoken form, দাদা dada 'elder brother', ভাই bhai̯ 'younger brother', দিদি didi 'elder sister' are widely used in both formal and nonformal situations and in both known and unknown social settings. 'Sir' and 'madam' are usually used in official and academic situations. These terms are the borrowed forms from English.

In the written form, that is, especially in letters, প্রিয় prio 'dear', প্রিয়ভাজনেষু priobhaʤoneʃu 'dear', সুপ্রিয়েসু ʃuprieʃu 'dear', সুপ্রিয়াসু ʃupriaʃu 'dear' (female), সুচরিতেষু ʃutʃoriteʃu 'dear', সুচরিতেষু ʃutʃoritaʃu 'dear' (female friend)', স্নেহের sneher 'loving' are widely used in case of addressee of almost same age or younger than the addressor. This is a less formal mode of address. In these cases of addressing, Muslims use জনাব ʤɔnab 'dear'.

In cases where the addressor is younger than the addressee, শ্রীচরণেষু sritʃɔroneʃu or প্রণম্য pronommo (an attitude of touching the feet of the addressee) is widely used. পূজনীয় puʤonio (in case of males) and পূজনীয়া puʤonia (in case of females) (as attitude of worshipping) are also used. Other forms of addressing the elderly people which are used by both the Hindus and the Muslims are শ্রদ্ধেয় Sroddheo (in case of males) and শ্রদ্ধেয়া sroddhea (in case of females).

In formal relationship where the addressor may or may not have acquaintance with the addressee, the terms মহাশয় mɔhaʃɔe 'Sir' and মহাশয়া mɔhaʃɔea 'madam' are used. মাননীয় manonio 'respected man' and মাননীয়া manonia 'respected woman' are optionally prefixed to them. Apart from these, শ্রদ্ধাস্পদেষু Sroddha pɔdeʃu 'respected' and শ্রদ্ধাভাজনেষু Sroddhabhaʤoneʃu 'respected' are also used in these contexts.

For the reference purpose, the system of mentioning ইতি iti 'end' (a less formal approach) and ভবদীয় bhɔbodio meaning the same thing (a formal approach) are used at the end of the letters.

8. POLITENESS EXPRESSION :

The politeness expressions used in Bangla are the following :

	1. দয়া করে‎    dɔe̯a  kore  'kindly'
     	কৃপা করে       kripa kore  'kindly' (less frequent)
	(e.g. আপনি দয়া করে / কৃপা করে আমায় বইটা দেবেন ?   
	apni dɔe̯a  kore amae̯ boiʈa deben?
	'will you kindly give me the book?

	2. দুঃখিত  dukkhito  'sorry'
	(e.g. দুঃখিত! আপনি কিছু মনে করবেন না  
	dukkhito! Apni kitʃhu mone korben na.
	'Sorry! do not mind anything'.)

Instead of দুঃখিত dukkhito, Muslims may use আফসোস afsōs also.

	3.   ক্ষমা করবেন   khɔma korben  'forgive' 
	(e.g.) ক্ষমা করবেন! আমি আঘাত করতে চাইনি 
	khɔma korben! Ami aghat korte tʃai ni
	'Forgive me! I did not want to hurt'.)

Instead of ক্ষমা khɔma, Muslims also use মাফ māf which means 'forgive'.

	4.    কিছু মনে করবেন না  Kitshu mone korben na
	'Do not mind anything' 

	5.     ধন্যবাদ  dhonnobad  'Thank you'
	(e,g,  আমাকে সাহায্য করার জন্য ধন্যবাদ  amake ʃahaʤʤo kɔrar ʤnno dhonnobad. 
	'Thank you for helping me')

6. Any kind of active sentence expresses politeness when it is transformed to a passive sentence. For Example,

	আমি যাব না   ami ʤabo na,   
	'I will not go',  (Active voice)  
	cf.  আমার যাওয়া হবে না   amar ʤao̯a hɔbe na.
	'It will not be possible for me to go'. (Passive voice)

7. Any kind of affirmative sentence when transformed to an interrogative sentence expresses politeness.For example,

	আমাকে বইটা দিন  amake boiʈa din,
	'Give me the book'  (Affirmative sentence) 
	cf. আমাকে কি বইটা দেবেন?    amake ki boiʈa deben?
	'Would you give me the book?'  (Interrogative sentence) 

9. GREETING AND DEPARTURE TERMS :

The most widely used greeting terms of the Hindu speakers of the Bangla speech community are - নমস্কার nomoʃkar 'Hello', and সুপ্রভাত ʃuprobhat 'good morning'. The widely used greeting terms of the muslims are the following : আস্সালামোয়ালাইকুম assalamoalaikum 'Hello'. In reply to this, the greeting term is ওয়ালাইকুমসালাম oalaikumsalam'Hello' (in reply only).

The terms of departure for the speakers of the Bangla speech community are _ শুভরাত্রি ʃubhorattri 'Good night' and নমস্কার nomoʃkar 'Hello'. আস্সালামোয়ালাইকুম assalamoalaikum 'good bye' may also be used as term of departure by the Muslim speakers of the Bangla speech community.

10. MEN'S AND WOMEN'S SPEECH :

Gender variable in the Bangla speech community has been significantly studied by the scholars like Sukumar Sen (1929), Nirmal Das (1970) and Sharmila Basu Datta (2000).

The variation in the speech between men and women has been noticed at various levels like- phonology, vocabulary, syntactic constructions, use of proverbs, idioms, taboos and so on.

At the phonological level, in women's speech it has been observed that, the words like স্বামী ʃami > সোয়ামি ʃoami 'husband', স্বাদ ʃad > সোয়াদ ʃoad 'taste'.

Similarly, instances of vowel, height assimilation are evident in women's speech, e.g., তাচ্ছিল্য tatʃtʃhillo > তাচ্ছিল্য tatʃtʃhilli 'negligence'.

In some dialects, women folk retained, 'n' instead of 'l' is used in the words. Like লেবু lebu > নেবু nebu 'lemon'

লাউ lau̪ > নাউ nau̪ 'Gourd'

This is not found in men's speech.

At the vocabulary level, men frequently use slangs like ঘ্যাম ghæm 'excellent', থোবড় thoboɤ 'face', কেলো kelo 'massacre', মাল mal 'woman', etc. which women usually never use. There are some kinship terms which are exclusively for the use of women like - জা ʤa 'Sister-in-law', ননদnɔnod 'Sister-in-law'

	ভাসুর  bhaʃur  'elder brother-in-law',
	দেওর  dæor  'younger  brother-in-law'.

On the other hand there are some kinship terms which are exclusively for men's use like -

	শালা   ʃala  'brother-in-law'
	শালি ʃali  'Sister-in-law'
	ভাগ্নে  bhagne  'Sister's son'
	ভাগ্নি bhagni    'Sister's daughter'.

As regards colour terms in Bangla, Women are found to use some names of some shades of colours which the men express differently. For example, in order to express various shades of the yellow colour, men use words for stating only deep and light instead of using the descriptive terms like বাসন্তী baʃonti, সোনালী ʃonali, কাঁচা হলুদ kãtʃa holud, লেবু হলুদ lebu holud, etc. as used by the women]

Women often use baby talks like মিট্টি miʈʈi (মিষ্টি miʃʈi) 'sweet', দুট্টুduʈʈu (দুষ্টু duʃʈu) 'naughty', ছোট্টু ʈʃhoʈʈo (ছোট tʃhoʈo), বড্ড bɔɖɖo (বড় bɔɤo), etc. which are never found in men's vocabulary.

There are suffixes which are found particularly in Women's speech. Some of these are -অন -ɔn, -অন্ত -ɔnto, -ইষ্টি -iʃʈI, -পনা -pɔna, etc. For example,নাচন nacon 'dance', জিয়ন্ত ʤiɔno 'alive', কর্মিষ্ঠি kormiʃʈhi 'labourious', সতীপনা ʃotipɔna 'Virgin attitude', চাঁদপনা tʃãdpɔna 'like moon'(moon like).

In the field of abusing language, women use some terms like পোড়ামুখী Poɤa mukhi 'burnt face', পোড়াকপাল poɤakɔpal 'ill fate', কালামুখী kalamukhi 'black faced', বারোভাতারি barobhatari 'prostitute', অনামুখো ɔnamukho 'ill faced', আঁটকুড়ো ãʈkuɤo 'infertile', কুলমজানি kulmɔʤani 'family destroyer', লক্ষীছাড়া lokkhitʃhaɤa 'vagabond', হাঘরে haghɔre 'poverty striken', পাড়াঢলানি paɤaɖhɔlani 'local area roamer'.

At the syntactic level, there is a marked distinction between the speeches of men and women. Amore polite form of expression is evidenced in women's speech than that of men. For example,

	তোমাকে আমার হয়ে এই কাজটা করতে হবে‎  to make amar hoe ei kaʤʈa korte hɔde
	'you have to do this work for me'.
	(Men's speech). 

	Cf.তুমি আমার হয়ে এই কাজটা দেবে?    tumi amar hoe ei kaʤʈa kore debe?  
	'will you do this work for me?'
	(Women's speech)

The use of the particles like না na (expletive), সম্ভবত ʃɔmbhɔbɔto 'possibly', প্রায় prae( 'about' / almost', etc. are found in the syntactic constructs of women's speech which are usually absent in men's speech. For Example,

	আজ আমাকে বাড়ি যেতে হবে aʤ amake baɤi ʤete hɔbe  
	'Today I have to go home'
	(Men's speech). 

	Cf.  আজ আমাকে না বাড়ি যেতে হবে
	aʤ amake na baɤi ʤete hɔbe.
	'Today I need to go home'
	(women's speech)

The tendency of speaking indirectly is also a women's characteristic which is not found generally in men's speech.

In the use of proverbs, idioms and taboo words, women use specific expressions which are not used by men. Some instances are given in the following :

	অতি বড় সুন্দরী না পায় বর‎
	oti bɔɤo ʃundori na pae̯  bɔɤ
	'Very beautiful women do not get husbands'
	(Proverbs)

	থোঁতা মুখ ভোঁতা করে দেওয়া thõta mukh bhõta kore deoa.
	'To put an end to one's tall talk' (Idiom)

	মেঝেতে জলের আঁক কাটলে ঋণ হয়  meʤheta ʤ ʤɔler ãk kaʈle rin hɔe̯ 
	'If one draws with water on the floor he will have to take a loan'. 
	(A taboo). 

11. NAMING (ETHNONOMY AND EXONOMY) :

The ethnonomy of the language is বাংলা 'bangla'. But the exonomy is 'Bengali'. Historically, the ethnonomy of language wasবাঙ্গালা bangla. It is obsolete now-a-days.

As regards the naming of the speech community, the ethnonomy is বাঙালি baŋali, whereas the exonomy is 'Bengali' or 'Bengalee'.

12. CONCEPTS OF SPACE AND TIME :

The concepts of space in Bangla are indicated by the following terms:

The concepts of time in Bangla are expressed by the terms presented in the following:

13. MYTHS AND MYTHOLOGY :

There is no mythology as such for the Bangla speech community. But there are some beliefs or myths regarding various gods and goddesses representing various qualities or activities that affect the human beings.

14. BELIEF SYSTEMS :

The members of the Bangla speech community have some universal beliefs alongwith some specifications regarding the life of human beings. Some such general beliefs are enumerated in the following:

1. Belief in the immortality of the soul.

2. Belief in god and goddesses.

3. Belief in the rebirth of human beings.

4. Belief in the good and bad effects of honesty and dishonesty.

5. Belief in the nature as god.

6. Belief in mantras i.e., chanting of hymns for the good and holy activities, etc.

7. Belief in the post mortem effects (i.e, hell or heaven) of the good and bad activities during one's life span.

8. Belief in the good effect of the special treatment of the guests in the social and family set up.

9. Belief in showing respect for the elders, the belief of not pronouncing the names of the in-laws (in case of married women) was an existing behavioural norm in the Bangla speech community till early part of the 20th Century.

10. Lighting an earthen lamp in the evening in front of gods or goddesses should be done for the well-being of the family. This is another belief of the speech community.

15. WORLD VIEW AS REFLECTED IN THE LEXICON AND SYNTAX :

The world view of the Bangla speech community is found to be reflected in the proverbs and idioms included as entries in the lexicon. These proverbs and idioms have been discussed in the following section No. 16.

16. PROVERBS, IDIOMS AND ABUSES :

There are many proverbs, idioms and abuses that are extensively used by the Bangla speakers. Some instances are given in the following:

PROVERBS:

	1. সুখের চেয়ে স্বস্তি ভালো   ʃukher tʃee̯  ʃosti bhalo.
	'Peace is better than happiness / happy living'.

	2. সাবধানের মার নেই  ʃabdhaner mar nei
	'Safe bind safe find'.

	3. এক মাঘে শীত যায় না  æk maghe ʃit ʤae̯  na.
	'Winter does not end in one season'.

	4. যার বিয়ে তার হুঁশ নেই, পাড়া পড়শির ঘুম নেই    ʤar bie tar huʃ nei, paɤ a  poɤ ʃir ghum nei
	'The concerned person (who is to get married)  is unaware, whereas the neighbours are sleepless'. 

	5. যে রাঁধে সে চুলও বাঁধে   ʤe rãdhe ʃe tʃulo bãdhe.
	'The person who cooks can also dress his/ her hair'.

	6. যত সয় তত রয়  ʤɔto ʃɔe̯   tɔto rɔe̪ 
	'The more one tolerates, the more one gains'.

	7. যত শেষ তত বেশ  ʤɔto ʃeʃ tɔto beʃ.
	'The sooner the task is complete, it is better'. 

	8. মায়ের চেয়ে মাসির দরদ বেশি  maer tʃee̯  maʃir  dɔrod beʃI
	'Aunt's affection is greater than mother'.

	9. সোজা আঙুলে ঘি ওঠে না   ʃoʤa aղule ghi  oʈhe na
	'Straight finger cannot take out ghee'.

	10.টাকায় টাকা বাড়ে   ʈakae ʈaka baʈe
	'Money mints more money'. 

IDIOMS:

	1. ক অক্ষর গোমাংস kɔ  ɔkkhor gomaղʃo
	'Illiterate'. 

	2. বাপ কা বেটা       bap ka bæʈa / beʈa
	'Like father like son'.

	3. মন্ত্রের সাধন কিংবা শরীর পাতন় mɔntɤeɤ ʃadhon kiղba  ʃorir paton
	'To do or die'.

	4. আলালের ঘরের দুলাল   alaler ghɔreɤ dulal
	'Spoilt child'.

	5. চোখের পর্দা না থাকা tʃokher  pɔrda na thaka
	'Shameless fellow'. 

	6. অন্ধকারে ঠিল ছোঁড়া    ɔndhokare ɖhil tʃhoɤa
	'To beat about the bush'

	7. আকাশ কুসুম দেখা akaʃ kuʃum dækha
	'To built castles in the air'.

	8. অতি লোভে তাঁতি নষ্ট oti lobhe tãti  ɔʃʈo.
	'Too much greed spoils the spinner'
	('Grasp all, loose all').

	9. আঙুর ফল টক     aŋur phɔl ʈɔk
	'Grapes are sour'.

	10. জোর যার মুলুক তার ʤor ʤar muluk tar
	'One who has strength gains ground'.

ABUSES:

17. INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE SYSTEMS :

The indigenous knowledge system of the Bangla speech community has been preserved in ছড়া tʃhɔɤa 'rhyme', ধাঁধাঁ dhã dhã 'puzzle', লোকসঙ্গীত lokʃoղgit 'folk song', লোকসাহিত্য lokʃahitto 'folk literature', etc.

In connection with folk literature, special reference can be made to the utterances of 'khana', a historical learned woman, who is called, খনার বচন khɔnar bɔtʃon. Some instances are given in the following:

1. ‌বাদল, বামুন, বান দখিনা পেলে যান badol, bamun, ban dokhina pele ʤan 'Rain, Brahmin, tide go after getting southern wind (in case of rain and tide) and remuneration (in case of a Brahmin).

2. যদি বর্ষে মাঘের শেষ, ধন্য রাজার পুণ্য দেশ ʤodi bɔɤʃe magher ʃeʃ djnno raʤar punno deʃ. 'If it rains at the end of the month of 'Magh', the king is blessed and holy is the country.

3. কাঁচায় না নোয়ালে বাঁশ, পাকলে করে ঠাস ঠাস kãtʃaĕ na noale bãʃ, pakle kɔre ʈhaʃ ʈhaʃ 'If the bamboo is not bent in its green, it sounds hard when ripen'.

18. CEREMONIES :

The various ceremonies observed by the speakers of the Bangla speech community are mainly related to birth, naming, marriage and death.

1. Birth Ceremony :

The following ceremonies are performed by the Hindus.

i) The first ceremony that is performed after a child's birth is on the sixth day of the birth, which is known as ছ-ষষ্ঠী tʃhɔ ʃoʃʈhi or ষেটেরা ʃeʈera or সূতিকা ষষ্ঠী ʃutika ʃoʃʈhi.

(ii) On the eighth day of a child's birth, আটকৌড়ে aʈkouɤe is observed. On this occasion eight kinds of fried snacks are distributed to children.

(iii) On the twenty first day (in case of a male child) and on the thirtieth day (in case of a female child) of a child's birth ষষ্ঠীপূজা ʃoʃʈ hi pud(a is performed for the well being of the child.

(iv) After six months (in case of a male child) and after seven months (in case of a female child) of a child's birth, naming of the child is done and on that auspicious day rice is given to the child for the first time by an uncle (either paternal or maternal). This is known as অন্নপ্রাশন ɔnnopraʃon or মুখেভাত mukhebhat.

The following ceremonies are performed by the Muslims.

a. After some days of a child's birth, পাক হওয়া pak hɔo̯a 'to become clean' is performed by cutting the child's hair.

b. The naming ceremony which is called আক্কিকা akkika is performed with the sacrifice of a goat (one goat in case of a girl child and two in case of a boy child). Priest or 'maulabi' may be called for the naming.

c. মুসলমানি muʃolmani is done to a boy child by cutting a skin layer of the sex organ. This ceremony is done as early as the child is born.

2. Holy Thread ceremony :

Especially among the Hindus, particularly among Brahmins and Vaidyas, উপনয়ন upanayan or পৈতে poite, the 'holy thread' ceremony takes place. It is a ceremony for the boys who are usually within eight to fourteen years of age. গায়ত্রী মন্ত্র gayatri mantra is given to the boy by the priest along with the holy thread. With this, the boy attains the status of a Brahmin or vaidya.

3. Marriage :

This is a very important and grand ceremony for the Bengali people. The ceremony continues for two to three days.

4. Bhratridvitiya or Bhaiphonta :

On this ceremony sisters put ফোঁটা phõʈa 'a dot' of sandal wood paste on their brother's foreheads. This ceremony is usually held in the month of October -November after 'Deepavali'.

5. Sadh :

The occasion is held for a pregnant woman during her seventh or ninth month of pregnancy. On this ceremony the pregnant woman is offered good and delicious food of various types, sarees and ornaments.

6. Jamai Sasthi :

On this occasion, the mother-in-law invites her son-in-law on a particular day (based on 'tithi', usually held in the month of June). Good dishes are prepared by the mother-in-law for her son-in-law and he is offered delicious food and costly garments.

7. Death :

The ceremony that is held after the death of a human being in the community is known as শ্রাদ্ধ Sraddho. Various types of offerings and worships are done for the peace of the departed soul of that person. This usually takes place on the eleventh or thirteenth day of the death in case of Hindus.

In case of Muslims, the ceremony known as কুলখানী kulkhani is observed on the fourth day of the death by chanting of দোয়া DOA 'mantra' by 'priest' or 'maulabi'. Then on the forty first day of the death, another occasion takes place by chanting of 'doa' by the maulabi'.

19. FOOD SYSTEM :

The food system of the Bengalese is quite elaborate. They are usually habituated to taking various items during their lunch and dinner. Their stable food is rice. They are generally non-vegetarian. They are habituated to taking different types of fish prepared in various ways.

The food they take during lunch usually follow a sequence like - ঘি ghee 'clarified butter', তেতো teto 'a bitter dish', ডাল ɖal 'pulse', ভাজা bhaʤa 'something fried', তরকারি tɔrkari 'a vegetable dish', মাছের ঝোল matʃher ʤhol or / and মাছের ঝাল matʃer ʤhal 'a gravy item of fish', চাটনি tʃaʈni 'a sour item' and lastly মিষ্টি miʃʈI and দই doi 'sweet dish and curd'.

Apart from these, the special food items which are intimately related to the Bangla speech community are - কাসুন্দি kaʃundi 'a pickle preserved in mustard and salt', আচার atcar 'pickle', পাটালি paʈali 'molasses bar', মোয়া moa 'sweetened ball of parched rice', মুড়কি muɤki 'parched paddy coated with molasses'. পিঠে piʈhe 'sweet pie', খাজা khaʤa 'crispy sweetmeat', গজা gɔʤa 'Sweetmeat made of flour', সীতাভোগ shitabhog 'a kind of sweetmeat', তিলকুট tilkuT 'sesame sweet', বারখণ্ডি birkhonɖI 'a kind of sweetmeat', কদমা kɔdma 'round & hard sweetmeat', রসগোল্লা rɔʃogolla 'white coloured sweet', পান্তুয়া pantua 'red coloured sweet', নাড়ু naɤu 'rounded sweet made up of coconut', চন্দ্রপুলি tʃɔndropuli 'a sweet made of coconut - kernel and sugar', মিহিদানা mihidana 'a yellow coloured sweet made of many small balls of pulse dust'.

20. DRESS AND ORNAMENTS :

Traditionally though Bengalee men used to wear ধুতি dhuti 'loin cloth for men' and পাঞ্জাবি panʤabi 'a kind of loose shirt with no collar', now they wear shirt and pant. Only during certain ceremonies or festivals some men wear the traditional dress. The same change is found in case of the muslim men also. Traditionally, they, used to wear লুঙ্গি luղgi 'loin cloth for men' or পাজামা paʤama 'a loose pant usually of white colour' with পাঞ্জাবি punʤabi 'a kind of loose shirt with no collar'. But now they have shifted to shirt and pant.

Bengalee women (both Hindus& Muslims) wear শাড়ি ʃaɤI 'saree' with ব্লাউজ blaus 'blouse' and সায়া ʃae̯a 'petticoat' which is their traditional dress. But now-a-days young generation is found to wear সালোয়ার-কামিজ Saloar - Kamiʤ 'Salwar - kameeƷ' extensively as well as western dresses. Bengali women love to wear gold ornaments like ear-rings, necklace or chain, bangles, finger - rings, nose - pins, foot -chain, etc.

The textiles which are famous in Bengal include 'Jamdani', 'Dhakai', 'Moslin', 'tassar', 'Garad', 'Baluchari', 'Kantha Saree', 'Dhonekhali saree', 'Tangail', 'Bishnu puri silk', etc.

21. LOSS OF CULTURAL VOCABULARY DUE TO BORROWING AND CULTURAL CHANGES :

Due to borrowing or cultural changes in various spheres of life there are many vocabularies that are becoming non-existent in the speech of the Bangla speakers. The items like সেমিজ ʃemiʤ 'a white sleeveless gown worn by the woman under saree and blouse' has gone out of use. The ornament বাজুবন্ধ baʤubɔndho 'armlet' is also not used in these days and so the term is available only in literature. Such other instances are given in the following:

তাউইমশাই taui̯mɔʃai 'Sister's father-in-law' (replaced by মেশোমশাই meʃomɔʃai 'aunt's husband').

মাউইমাmaui̯ - ma 'Sister's mother-in-law' (replaced by meʃomɔʃai 'aunt') বটঠাকুরbɔʈʈhakur 'husband's elder brother' (replaced by দাদা dada 'elder brother')

ঠাকুরপো ʈhakurpo 'husband's younger brother' (replaced by the proper name of the person)

ঠাকুরঝি ʈhakurʤhi 'husband's younger sister' (replaced by the proper name of the person).

It is to be noted here that the above terms have been lost especially in urban areas. In rural areas some of them are still in use.

Apart from these, there are also a number of vocabulary items which have become obsolete. Some of them are as follows: